THE ARIZONA STATE MUSEUM

The Arizona State Museum was created as a Territorial Museum on April 7, 1893 "for the collection and preservation of the Archaeological resourcees, specimens of the mineral wealth, and the flora and fauna of the Territory." The Museum was an integral part of the Territory University and nineteen years later, in 1912, when Arizona became the 48th State of the Union, the Museum became a part of the University of Arizona.

The Museum located on the University of Arizona campus, Tucson, houses both the Museum collections and the offices of the Department of Anthropology. The two are closely allied as their primary concern is the history of man as shown by the archaeology and ethnology of the southwestern part of North America, end of Arizona in particular.

The first Museum collections, mainly of bird skins and eggs, were assembled by Herbert Brown, a pioneer scientist who served as curator. Portions of these collec-tions still form an important part of the Museum's displays.

John Thornber, Professor of Botany at the University, directed the Museum in 1913. In 1915, Dr. Byron Cummings became full time director. Under his direction the Museum collections were expanded, and a Department of Archaeology (later Anthropology) was established and headed by Dr. Cummings.

In 1937 Dr. Cummings retired and his former student, Dr. Emil W. Haury, became head of the Department of Anthropology, and in 1938 director of the Museum. During this period the Museum has become recognized not only as a depository for important collections, but also for its research in cooperation with the Department of Anthropology.

The Museum collections are outstanding in their coverage of Southwestern Archaeology. There is a full range of the clay, stone and bone objects identified with the Hohokam Culture. Most of these are from the Snaketown site, on the Pima Reservation, which was excavated on by Gila Pueblo, and others have come from work carried on by the Museum. Anasazi collections contain some of the finest textiles that have been found in southwestein ruins. The latter part of the Anasazi Culture, in particular, is well represented by collections from the east central part of Arizona, These have come largely from the excavations carried on by the Museum, in connection with the Department of Anthropology at the University of Arizona, and from the mumerous investigations made by Gila Pueblo at Globe. The artifacts found with the Mogollon Culture, displayed and in the study collections, have come from the pioneering investigations of this culture made by Gila Pueblo and also by the Museum. Two important ancient archaeological sites in Southern Arizona have recently been investigated by the Museum. These are located near the international border in the. San Pedro Valley, one near Naco, and the other on the Lehner ranch near Hereford, At the Naco site recent erosions led to the discovery of the bones of a mansunoth, with eight spear points lodged among them, showing that the animal had been.

killed by hunters. Soon after the "kill," nature covered the skeleton with clay and silt where it lay buried for thousands of years. Excavations at the Lehner site revealed the remains of nine mammoths and other animals now extinct, with stone hunting implements. The study of the geology of these sites and the animal remains. indicate a climate that was much cooler and more moist than that of today. These sites have been dated by the radiocarbon method, indicating that the hunting took place about 12,000 years ago. They are identified by their Clovis fluted points with the Llano Culture. As time passed, the climate became warner and drier in the Southwest. People were no longer hunting the large animals for they had learned to depend upon natural food products for a great part of their diet. In many places in America where people were living as food gatherers, they were still nomadic, forced to move from place to place. Those living in the Southwest, however, had settled in communities where natural food products were more abundant. These included roots, nuts, seeds,

and other vegetable products.

The Cochise Culture, named after Cochise County, Arizona, where it was found, was discovered by Dr. Cummings in 1926 while he was excavating the skull of an extinct mammoth northwest of Douglas, Arizona. The results of this excavation showed that Cochise man and the mammoth lived during the same period, and that the tools of man were designed more for food gathering than for hunting large game animals. Out of this more settled life of the Cochise gatherers came the idea of cultivating and plant domestication. This long record of man's history as a food gatherer is especially well displayed in the Museum in the Ventana Cave exhibit.

Following the Cochise Culture, the ways of living were changed by agriculture. Corn was the principal food grown by these early farmers. Beans and squash were also grown to supplement the fare of natural products and of game.

The Mogollon Culture developed in the mountainous area of southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona, extending diagonally through the central portion of the State. Houses were built of timbers covered with earth, and the inhabitants were some of the earliest southwestern town dwellers.

The Hohokam Culture began in the desert of southern Arizona, in the large river valleys, and eventually spread throughout the southern third of the state. The name Hohokan is a Pima word that means “those who are gone,” and is used by the modern Pima and Papago Indians when referring to the ruins of this region.

The Hohokam were skilled artists and craftsmen, working in shell, bone, and textiles. Their culture is characterized by its distinctive pottery, pit houses, ball. courts, and extensive irrigation systems. They were a vigorous people, creating a culture that lasted from about the beginning of the Christian era until the 14th century.

The Anasazi Culture was first observed in the plateau area of northeastern Arizona, and was given the name “Anasazi” by the Navaho, a word meaning “The Ancient Ones.” The Anasazi Culture includes two major periods, the Basket Makers, who were pithouse dwellers, and later the Pueblo people, who were town dwellers. A distinctive trait of the Pueblo people was the use of ceremonial rooms called kivas, usually built underground.

Asia was the place of origin of most American Indians. Differences in language and physical appearance indicate that migrants arrived at different times with more Mongoloid traits among the recent arrivals.

Indians. Differences in language and physical appearance indicate that migrants arrived at different times with more Mongoloid traits among the recent arrivals.

The Pueblo Indians have retained more of their native culture than other tribes. Formerly they lived over a large part of the Southwest. Today they are represented by the Hopi alone in Arizona and by other Pueblo tribes in New Mexico. Mexico. Farming, as in prehistoric times, is an important pursuit of the Pueblo people, their their main crops being corn, beans, and squash, all native American plants. Some grains, vegetables, fruits, and melons, introduced by the Spanish, are also grown. The principal handicraft of the Pueblo Indians is pottery-making, which is normally carried on as part-time work by the women, who also make baskets. The men do leather work, jewelry, wood carving (mainly kachina dolls), and textile weaving. Like other Southwest Indians the Pueblos earn a large part of their living by wages. Their homes are like those of their ancestors. Some of their villages, such as Oraibi, have been occupied for hundreds of years.

Modern clothing is worn by nearly all Southwest Indians. Only the more conservative people in remote areas at times dress in the older costumes. Ceremonial dress continues to be worn on ritual occasions by many tribes.

The Navajo Indians have the largest population (more than 82,000) and the largest reservation (more than 14,000,000 acres). The land is mostly barren and they must work for wages to supplement their income from the raising of sheep, horses, and goats. Some farming is done, but seldom beyond personal needs.

In recent years the tribal income has been increased by the development of minerals-uranium, oil, gas-which is being used for betterment of the entire tribe.

Their main crafts are weaving and silver work. Their houses, called hogans, are made of heavy timbers arranged either in conical structures or cribbed like a log cabin, and then covered with earth.

The Apaches are divided into two main branches, the western, living in Arizona, and the eastern, living mainly in New Mexico. The Apaches were formerly composed of small bands ranging from western Texas to Arizona and as far south as northern Mexico. Their language stock is the same as that of the Navajo, Athapascan. Both are among the latest migrants to America.

The Apaches are deeply attached to their lands, and in defending them from white settlers they gained the reputation of being fierce fighters. Today the Apaches are a peaceful people, and are rapidly becoming adjusted to the present way of life. The main source of income is raising cattle and lumber development. Farming was never extensively practiced by the Apaches.

All modern desert tribes have a way of life that is shared in common. Small homes built of earth, with walls of covered poles or adobe and a brush roof, are designed as shelters from the hot sun rather than protection from the few cold winter nights. Agriculture is dependent upon irrigation from rain waters or rivers. Natural foods provide a large part of their needs, supplied by mesquite, cactus, and other desert plants. Wild game is now replaced by domesticated cattle. The Papago Indians live near Tucson. Closely related to them are the Pima, located in the Salt River Valley with their nearby neighbors, the Maricopa. The Papago Indians, like many other tribes, are deeply religious and are frequently joined by the Yaqui Indians in celebrating their adopted Christian fiestas. The Yaqui Indians living in Arizona came to the United States from Mexico during the past 50 years.

The Seri are a small tribe of fishers and hunters living along the desert shores of the Gulf of California and Tiburon Island in Sonora, Mexico. Much of their old way of life is retained although they have adopted many customs of the Mexican people. Their principal handicrafts are basketry and wood carving. They have a strenuous existence.

Other desert tribes are the Yuma, Cocopa, and Mohave on the Colorado River and, in northwestern Arizona, the Hualapai and Yavapai. The Havasupai, east of the Hualapai, are farmers and stock raisers. Close neighbors of the Mohave are the Shoshonean-speaking Chemehuevi.

Today all Indians have become "modernized" to some degree. Much of what is called Indian is actually their adaptation of European ideas and possessions. Following are some of the more important innovations.

OPPOSITE PAGE

These photographs by Ray Manley were taken with a 5x7 Linhof camera; E-3 Ektachrome Type B; f.16 at 20 seconds; Super Angulon lens; combination natural illumination and flash bulbs. Upper: A part of the main floor of the Arizona State Museum at Tucson; Navajo Indian blankets on mezzanine rail and floor. Section of giant sequoia tree (Sequoia washintonia) is a part of an exhibit demonstrating how tree rings have been used to date ancient Southwestern ruins. The lower photographs show part of the museum displays. Designs, symbols, and pictures were painted in different colors by ancient man to accomplish certain purposes, such as to influence spirits, rather than used as decorations. The major periods of Mexican archaeology, identified with different regions, are shown by the treatment of heads and faces. Some of the more characteristic pottery styles made during the past fifty years. The discovery of Corn, its domestication and subsequent distribution was the most important factor in the development of prehistoric American culture. Its spread and use throughout the world today makes it equal with wheat and rice, as a food on which civilization depends.

PREHISTORIC PAINT

THE THOUSANDS OF YEARS COLOR HAS PLAYED AN IMPORTANT PART IN THE LIVES OF THE INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST. COLOR WAS, AND STILL IS, MANY USED, PRIMARILY TO INFLUENCE THE SPIRITS. BY PAINTING DESIGNS, SYMBOLS AND FIGURES ON THE BODY, FACE, POTTERY, BASKETS, WALLS OF KIVAS, AND CEREMONIAL OBJECTS, THE INDIANS OF ANCIENT TIMES AND MODERN USE PAINT LIKE SUBSTANCES WHEN DECORATING THEMSELVES AND THEIR OBJECTS FOR CEREMONIAL PURPOSES AND FOR DAILY USE.

MODERN PUEBLO POTTERY COMPARATIVE ART EXPRESSIONS OF PRE-SPANISH MEXICO CORN

FOUNDATION OF GREAT CIVILIZATIONS

The Christian religion is now accepted by many tribes. Woolen cloth was purchased from traders and used instead of animal skins for trousers and other clothing. Although shell, bone, and stone beads had been made by Indians for centuries, the introduction of European glass beads caused a great flowering of bead work, especially among the plains tribes. The ceremonial, or “peace” pipe, in the form of a tomahawk was an Anglo invention, but tobacco was of Indian origin. The use of metal was new to many Indian tribes, who adopted very quickly the metal tomahawks in place of stone ones; copper bracelets replaced those of shell and bone; and with the introduction of the horse, an entire complex of fancy trappings developed. Firearms of any sort were avidly sought by the Indians.

The foundation of Indian cultures in the archaeological past was native to America, and its significance has been shown in the Museum by a series of displays summarizing technological steps. Of great importance to the world today, is the role of corn in the development of native American culture. This background of human accomplishment recorded by American archaeology is taken for granted in our way of life, for we seldom stop to think what our civilization would be without this inheritance. Seldom do we realize how much more man's present would be advanced if he knew more about, and would make more use of, history's experiences.

In addition to the ethnological collections showing the possessions of the Southwestern Indians, the Museum has representative objects from other Indian tribes, of the plains Indians in particular. Other materials, both historical and archaeological, come from different parts of the world and form an important part of the Museum's collections.

Now on display is a series of firearms showing their development from the earliest types. Featured is the development of weapons before the use of gun powder, particularly the spear and the bow and arrow, which were the Indians' principal means of livelihood.

OPPOSITE PAGE

These photographs by Ray Manley were taken with a 4x5 Linhof camera; E-3 Ektachrome; f.22 at 1 second; 5½" Symmar lens; natural light. Upper and lower left are dioramas at the Arizona State Museum. Lower right shows a Yaqui Indian Deer dancer at a ceremonial. The diorama was made by Louis Paul Jonas of Hudson, New York. Each animal was first modeled in clay, accurately scaled to 1/10th actual size. The extinct species were reconstructed from studies of similar living forms. Then moulds were made for casting the figures in a specially prepared plastic material. Finally they were painted to reproduce the lifelike appearance. The vegetation is represented by both natural and artificial objects specially treated and selected to form a setting for the animals. The painted background is a composite which was designed from photographs made in the area of Ventana Cave. It illustrates the environment at the time the cave was first lived in by man-10,000 years ago.

Some of the characteristic minerals and wild life of Arizona are shown by exhibits. These reflect the use that man has long made of the varied natural resources of the state.

Other functions of the Museum are not evident in the displays, but are of equal interest to many visitors, as shown by the questions most often asked: Where does the Museum get its specimens? What use is made of the things not on display? What is the purpose of the study of archaeology? First, there is the question-where does the Museum get all of the things it has?-a question frequently asked by young and old. Many of the Museum's collections have been gifts-items gathered by others, just as the Museum staff collects them. One of the largest of these gifts is the Gila Pueblo collections, gathered from the entire Southwest as well as more distant parts of the world. The assembling of these collections by Gila Pueblo, a research institution, formerly at Globe, Arizona, was supported by Mr. and Mrs. Harold S. Gladwin and had been participated in by both Dr. Emil W. Haury, director of the Arizona State Museum, and Mr. E. B. Sayles, curator, who were members of the Gila Pueblo staff at that time. Outstanding in the Gila Pueblo collections are the specimens from the culture of the Hohokam -ancient Arizona desert dwellers; the Mogollon-the first Southwestern farmers; the Cochise-ancestors of many later peoples in the Southwest, and from the archaeological surveys that reached from Texas to California, and from Kansas to Mexico. The results of this research are shown in the Museum's displays, but the detailed story they tell can only be found in the many scientific publications that cover them.

Other important gifts have come to the Museum as collections; many more have been donated as single objects. All of these are a part of Museum's possessions. In addition to the gifts to the Museum are the thingsgathered by the staff, and information concerning these objects. Most of this work has been done in collaboration with the Department of Anthropology at the University, either as a part of the department's teaching program, or as a research project in which the University students have frequently participated. Archaeological field schools at Point of Pines on the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, in the Forestdale Valley in central Arizona, and at Kinishba on the Fort Apache Reservation, have resulted in rich archaeological collections and, at the same time, provided practical training in anthropology for many University students.

Outstanding among the Museum's contributions to Southwestern archaeology were the investigations in Ventana Cave, west of Tucson on the Papago Indian Reservation, where 10,000 years of Southwestern prehistory were uncovered; at the Naco and Lehner ranch sites, both in southern Arizona near the Mexican border.

A part of the services performed by the Museum is the answering of many queries, not only about the things displayed in the Museun, but of things in general. Most of these questions are directed at the information desk maintained in the Museum, but many also come by letter from all parts of the country and even from for-eign lands.

Information is often sought by people living in Ari-zona concerning some archaeological object, or ruin, found on their land. With the present expansion in the population of Arizona, more of the archaeological resources are being brought to the attention of home builders, land improvers, and especially road builders. Very few of the thousands of Hohokam sites are now undisturbed. Other archaeological remains are rapidly being destroyed by the use our civilization is making of the land.

To help preserve Arizona's archaeology, and to record archaeological information before it is destroyed in order to make way for present day progress, and tosupply the increasing demand for information, the Museum now has an archaeologist on its staff.

The Museum is also closely allied with the Geochronology Laboratory established on the campus, which is studying every conceivable approach in methods to establish dates for events that took place before there were written documents.

The Museum has participated in many anthropological investigations, carried on by the research associates of the Museun and the staff and students in the Department of Anthropology. Some of these were in distant parts of the country, but more often in Arizona, and were related especially to studies of different groups making up Arizona's varied population. These have resulted in a fuller understanding of other places and people and a further enrichment of the Museum's collections and storehouse of knowledge. How important this is to the State of Arizona has been recognized in the establishing of a Bureau of Ethnic Research on the University campus, which is closely affiliated with the Museum's activities.

The results of other researches, closely connected with the Museum's fields of interest, are also a part of its collections and its store of information. Most important of these is the work of Dr. A. E. Douglass, which resulted in a method for dating Southwestern ruins through the study of tree-rings in the timbers used in ancient dwellings.

The result of all of this varied research has made the Museum's displays possible. So extensive have some of the collections become, that have resulted from this research, that it is no longer possible to exhibit them all. Some have been selected to present their contents to the best advantage; others are displayed only from time to time. The Museum also has on temporary display collections that are loaned to the Museum to illustrate some of the objects from other regions which are not represented in its permanent collections.

A steadily increasing use of the Museum collections is that made by the public schools of Tucson and the adjoining area. Thousands of school children visit the Museum annually. In addition, the Museum has assembled a number of portable cases showing something of the history and resources of the Southwest and of other parts of the country for use by the schools as a part of their curriculum. These exhibits, which include several collections of objects which may be handled by the school classes, have been made more understandable by a series of dioramas made by members of the Junior League of Tucson.

Other collections from the Museum's storerooms are also used, from time to time, for display in the schools and other public institutions, in keeping with the Museum's practice of making its collections of the greatest possible use. There is another use of the Museum's collections that the visitor does not see, though it serves as important a purpose as do the exhibits. This is the use made of the collections as a source of knowledge. Much of this information has been published in scientific journals and has been widely distributed. The collections themselves are available for study by any accredited individual. University students make constant use of them. Many craftsmen have made use of ancient designs and forms found in the Museum's collections as sources for modern creations. The rich storehouse of pre-Columbian arts and crafts represented in the Museum and developed through the centuries by the American Indians, is only now becoming an important part of our lives.

These activities have kept pace with the expansion of the University of Arizona in the development of the State as a whole. They reflect the foresight of the Territorial Legislators who, 66 years ago, provided for a Museum as a part of the University.