THE ZUNIS AND THEIR JEWELRY

In the days of the early Western expansion and exploration the little village of Zuñi, New Mexico, was an important landmark in the opening of the Southwest. Travelers, following the old Santa Fe Trail, stopped there en route to California. Others, journeying north into the Tusayan Province and the Hopi Villages of Arizona, found a place to rest their horses and replenish their food supply. Today we get an entirely different impression of Zuñi. It has been by-passed as a junction point, and is now just a little Pueblo Indian village, 50 miles south of Gallup, surrounded by rugged mountains and rolling hills. An important business of the village is jewelry. It is a village of stonecutters and silversmiths. A large part of the Zuñi population participates in this thriving activity which accounts for an estimated 65 per cent of the tribal income. There is electricity to drive the power tools. The modern pick-up truck is standard equipment and can be found parked in front of many of the Indian houses. The houses are modern in concept compared with those of other tribes in the Southwest. For the most part they are light and airy, well-heated and clean. Furnishings are kept to a minimum. One finds little in the way of comfortable divans and over-stuffed chairs, yet the homes of these industrious artisans boast refrigerators and American cook stoves. The background for this industrial revolution is all the more fascinating if we consider Zuñi history and realize the trials and tribulations of these people and their treatment at the hands of the Spanish invaders. Their troubles with the hated white man began in the 16th century when the successors of Cortez were pushing the Spanish rule beyond the borders of the Valley of Mexico. The Spaniards gave credence to Mexican rumors of seven cities of Cibola, supposedly located north near the Rio Grande, where mined gold was available for its seizure. A party was sent to investigate with a giant negro guide named Estevan. The negro went ahead of the party and was killed by the Indians, but his messengers brought back word of the existence of the seven cities of fabulous wealth. Coronado was next to be sent in search of the heralded riches. He was wounded by the Zuñis and sent his next in command as far as the Hopi Villages. This officer brought back no news of rich treasure, but reported a deep river flowing through a gigantic canyon. Coronado returned disappointed in his search for the riches of gold which he thought would be the reward for his explorations.

Later another pilgrimage started from the south. This time the objective was to Christianize the Indians. The history of the succeeding years is too long to be related here,

SILVER AND BLUE SKY

Outstanding examples of Zuñi jewelry are shown in color photographs on the opposite page. The six photographs at the top of the page are by J. H. McGibbeny, while the lower four photographs with the blanket backgrounds are by Tad Nichols. Jewelry herein portrayed would represent a considerable investment in money. The pieces shown in the center photograph, top row, are probably the finest example of a matched set of Zuñi inlaid jewelry ever made. The silver is set with turquoise, jet, mother-of-pearl and oyster, and consists of bracelet, earrings, and ring. The set is from the private collection of C. G. Wallace, for more than 25 years operator of a trading post at Zuñi Pueblo. Jewelry photographed by Tad Nichols is from Clay Lockett's, Tucson.

WESTERN WAYS

but the natives finally became vassals of the King of Spain and were constantly in conflict with the invaders. The Indians staged several rebellions, resulting in the massacre of large numbers of whites. Warfare continued for many years although the religious groups tenaciously clung to their ultimate objectives.

In the middle of the village of Zuñi there still stands the ruins of a church built about 1698 which was not abandoned until 1845.

These placid Indian people emerged from those trying days and rebuilt their villages in the plains near the water supply. They tended their fields and took care of the livestock very much in the same manner as other Pueblo tribes. The houses were built close together out of adobe and logs. The surrounding fields were divided up into small sections with each family participating in the tilling of the soil. Very much the same system is in practice today. This idea also applies to livestock. A small flock might belong to an entire family although each individual sheep would be owned by a particular member of the group.

The historical background of Zuñi jewelry is fairly well established, although certain authorities may differ on some details. The basic facts are of primary interest and

TYPES OF ZUÑI JEWELRY

Photographs on the opposite page are by Ray Manley. The dancers in the center photograph are Zuñi Parrot Dancers in ceremonial garb. The artistry and exquisite craftsmanship of Zuñi jewelry makers are revealed in such pieces as the necklaces of shell, turquoise and coral (upper right); channel work (upper center); and the larger jewelry box (lower row, center).

They are generally agreed upon. We will confine our discussion to work in metal, although the Zuñis are famous for their exquisite shell work.

The period about 1830 first marked the use of metal for the making of jewelry by Zuñis. The early workers were few. Blacksmiths did some work in fashioning bridles and jewelry as it was an allied field. Copper and brass were obtained from pots and pans and any other possible source. The material was made into rings, bracelets, buttons and mountings for bow-guards. Indirect Mexican influence in jewelry design came through the Laguna and Isleta Pueblos, who were in closer contact with the Mexicans. This influence became noticeable as the Zuñis developed greater dexterity in their work and it was then that designs became more complicated, revealing the Spanish rococo flavor.

The Zuñis learned to work silver from a Navajo in 1872, four years after the Navajos returned to their reservation after having been held prisoners by the U.S. Government at Fort Sumner in New Mexico. In John Adair's book, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths, this recognized authority goes to great lengths in describing and quoting the first Zuñi reputed to have learned the art of the silversmith from the Navajo. His name was Lanyade. Mr. Adair recalls his exact words in documenting this important event. The Navajo, called Alsidi Chon, came to the Zuñi pueblo after his imprisonment in New Mexico. He brought some silver along with him and the first set of dies ever to have been seen in Zuñi. With these he was able to make designs of a decorative nature on the silver. He made bridles and concha belts which he traded to the Zuñis. At first he would not teach anyone his craft, but finally decided to let Lanyade use his precious tools, and in this way the silversmith's art passed from the Navajos to the Zuñis. Alsidi remained at Zuñi for only one year and left the village greatly enriched from his stay. He had arrived with but one horse. He left an affluent man, driving his many horses and sheep before him.

Lanyade continued to develop the art he learned from his Navajo friend and in time other Zuñis were included in the small number who were able to work silver. The designs were crude in the beginning as the silver was cast into moulds which were formed in sand. Gradually the Zuñi silversmiths developed a finer quality of jewelry, many of the pieces having turquoise set in them. As the silver work improved, it also became less important, gradually serving as a mounting for the spectacular turquoise settings. The Zuñis developed into experts in the cutting and shaping of their turquoise. They traded many pieces to Navajos and other Pueblo Indians. The Navajos liked the Zuñi stone work so well that they often traded for it and mounted it in their own settings. During this period there was no commercial aspect to any of the work. The designs were totally in the hands of the Zuñi artist who made exactly what pleased him. None of the jewelry was sold to the public as it found its outlet only among the Indians. This was true until the start of the 20th century when some of the traders started taking an interest in the work and gave the Indians supplies and credit for their jewelry.

The big transformation in Zuñi work started in about 1920. The increasing use of the automobile by tourists and interest in Indian arts and crafts were the contributing factors. The public was attracted to the unusual quality of workmanship and design of the Indian jewelry. It became a prized possession, sought after in larger and larger quantities. The pressure for greater production was gradually applied to the Navajos and Zuñis. The traders at Zuñi took an active interest in the craft work and encouraged the Zuñis in every possible way. They furnished turquoise and silver and suggested designs, as they were in close touch with the retailers, who were selling direct to the public. In a short space of time the emphasis shifted from jewelry on a small scale, made and used by the Indian, to a commercial enterprise with the American public as the growing customer.

This brings us to the beehive of activity which is modern Zuñi. There are approximately 3000 members of the tribe who live in three little villages on the reservation although by far the largest is the village referred to as Zuñi. Zuñi has a feeling of antiquity about it, but the new houses are being built with an eye toward practical living. The homes are owned by the women of the family and when a daughter marries, her husband moves in with her and they share the home with the parents, to say nothing of unmarried sisters and brothers plus numerous grandchildren. If necessary, and it usually is, an addition is built to the house. Nowhere would the phrase, "just one big happy family," apply so well. The family life of these people is the all-important center of activity. The art of working jewelry appears to be practiced in almost every household, although in varying degrees. Some families devote all their working time to the craft while others look upon it as a part-time job to be indulged in when the spirit moves them. Women of the tribe produce some of the finest work being done today.Jewelry making has made the modern Zuñi happily independent. There is a ready market for his product. He may work directly for the trader and receive all raw materials from him or he may take off for Gallup in his pick-up to buy silver, turquoise and other supplies. He might decide to sell his product in Gallup or perhaps visit some of the other pueblos and do a little trading. One silver worker said that he had put 98,000 miles on his pick-up in two yearsmostly over dirt roads-trading his wares.The work bench occupies an important place in the Zuñi home. It is usually near a big window and close to the fireplace. The tools vary considerably according to the needs of the individual. In most cases there will be a blow torch, a grinding wheel with a buffer attachment, some crimping tools, a metal anvil, a vise, several pairs of long-nosed pliers and an outfit for soldering. This is not by any means a complete list nor would it be duplicated in each home as every family has its own taste in selecting tools. Some families become experts in stone cutting. Others develop into extraordinary silversmiths and stick to that.

There are several types of jewelry in which the Zuñis specialize. One of the most beautiful features the matching of delicately cut turquoise mounted on a silver backing, used to hold the stones in place. Bracelets, earrings and necklaces are often done in this manner. The "inlay" work is also typical Zuñi and made by closely fitting together many pieces of abalone shell, horned oyster, turquoise, coral and pieces of jet. This work is used mostly for elaborate pins and decorative ornaments often mounted on silver boxes. Two of the most popular designs are known as the DragonFly and the Knife-Wing. The third, and one of the most popular types of Zuñi jewelry, is called "channel." This is made by inserting many little pieces of turquoise into silver channels and then grinding down the stones and the silver at one time to produce an even surface. This work is adaptable for rings, earrings and bracelets. Occasionally it will be used in making a necklace. Often large numbers of small turquoise stones are mounted in single strand bracelets. Then if larger widths are required more rows of the stones are added until sometimes a bracelet of ten rows may be created.

The origin of Zuñi design has no specific source. It may go back to early designs taken from Pueblo pottery or be something which has caught the craftsman's eye while perusing a mail order catalogue. If the silversmith is working directly for the trader, he will be instructed in the kind of design desired and he will stick to that. The trader, experienced in merchandising, knows what the buying public wants.

The Zuñis are content in their way of life. Their craftsmanship and industry have provided them with many of the material things of life. They are aloof and retired, living self-contained lives, strongly dictated by religious beliefs. A week rarely goes by without some demonstration of this strong attachment to the supernatural. They have little interest in their pale face "brothers," preferring their own way of life and association with their kind. White people may attend their ceremonies, although the largest number of visitors will be members of neighboring tribes.

The Zuñi goes about his life in a calm, placid way. He requires little or no help from the outside world and feels secure in his own independence. The Zuñi world is a serene one, where the tempo of life is less hectic. They are a patient, industrious people, and that patience and industry results in some of the most beautifully designed jewelry in the world today-Zuñi jewelry.