Arizona's Venom Man

OPPOSITE PAGE

SONORAN CORAL SNAKE (Micruroides eury xanthus) Opposite page, upper left. The Sonoran Coral snake of Southern Arizona and New Mexico belongs to the Elapine group and is related to the cobra. The Sonoran Coral snake is timid, shy and very rare. Its teeth are short and to be effective it must chew rather than strike its victim. This snake is usually less than two feet in length, with a mouth so tiny that it would have much difficulty in biting an adult human being. This snake closely resembles other tri-colored snakes which are perfectly harmless and quite beneficial. The bands of the Sonoran Coral snake completely encircle the body and there is a cream colored band between each red and black band, the nose and greater part of the head is black.

SIDEWINDER (Crotalus cerastes) Opposite page, upper right. This little rattlesnake seldom attains a length over 18 inches. Its outstanding physical characteristics other than its small size, rattles, and sandy color are the two horn-like protuberances on its head and its peculiar method of locomotion when in a hurry. It throws a portion of its body ahead as a loop to serve as an anchor to pull the rest of the body along. The sidewinder sometimes rests slightly beneath the surface in loose sand and therefore caution should be observed especially when sitting down or picking up objects in desert drywashes and such sandy places.

SCORPIONS Opposite page, left center. The three species of scorpions shown here in average size on one inch grid background are: right, Centruroides sculpturatus, the lethal, uniformly straw-colored, streamlined scorpion with its slim, delicate pincers and elongated tail segments strongly resembling the other known lethal species, the C. gertschi (not shown). The Giant Hairy scorpion, Hadrurus arizonensis, center, is often quite large but non-lethal. On the left is the non-lethal more common ground scorpion or stripedtail scorpion, Vejovis spinigerus, with its thicker, chunkier tail segments and pincers and a brownish body. Scorpions are nocturnal in their roving habits and frequent cool, damp, dark places. In nature they are commonly found under objects such as rocks, old logs etc., the ground scorpion usually on the ground and the deadly sculpturatus on the underside of the object. The sculpturatus is sometimes called a bark scorpion because of the frequency with which it is found under the loose bark of trees such as the cottonwood, pepper and eucalyptus and in the crevices between the old petiole stubs of palm trees. Around human habitations they brood and thrive in accumulations of old trash, bricks, lumber and in any semi-dark undisturbed places such as cellars, attics and old buildings, etc. It is not unusual for scorpions to enter houses through tiny crevices around doors or roofs and plumbing or electrical fixtures. Though they are most likely to frequent dark closets or rooms with plumbing they may be found anywhere. When daylight comes they seek a dark hideout, which may be a shoe or the folds of blankets, etc. The legs of young children's beds should be placed in clean wide-mouthed jars. Scorpions cannot climb clean glass.

CENTIPEDE (Scolopendra heros) Opposite page, right center. The large desert centipede attains a length of six and even eight inches and has jaws of sufficient strength to inflict a painful bite. Glands at the base of the jaws produce poison which causes the area about the bite to swell and become feverish, but is more painful than serious. The tip of each of the 42 legs of the giant desert centipede is equipped with a sharp claw. When the centipede runs across a person's arm or leg these claws sometimes make tiny punctures which frequently become infected from bacteria on the skin or claws. The bite or claw marks should be well saturated with antiseptic such as iodine.

TARANTULA (Avicularia species) Opposite page, lower left. Known to naturalists as bird spiders these large hairy spiders of the Southwest are docile and non-aggressive. Their strong sharp fangs can inflict a painful bite but they use them only rarely against human molestation. Their venom is very mild, any effects produced by the bite are more likely due to bacterial infection than to poison. They live in web-lined holes in the ground and feed on grasshoppers and other large insects. Unfortunately, they are sometimes the subjects of wholly unwarranted fear because of fantastic exaggerated pulp stories and wild unfounded yarns that have been passed along by uninformed persons. These large and interesting desert dwellers are not to be feared. They are beneficial rather than harmful to mankind and deserve protection.

BLACK WIDOW SPIDER (Lactrodectus mactans) Opposite page, lower right. This spider, easily recognized by its glossy black shoe button appearance and red hour glass mark on the underside of the abdomen, is found throughout the greater part of the United States.

It is the only spider found in the U. S. that is dangerous to man. They spin their ragged uneven webs in dark corners of garages, basements, in trash heaps, old lumber piles or most anywhere in or out of the house where they are not disturbed and where a food supply of small insects is available. The males are smaller and like the immature females are gray in color and are striped and spotted. Adult females spin egg cocoons containing as many as 500 eggs. The black widow usually comes out of hiding only in darkened corners or at night. They are timid and bite humans only when they cannot get away and are in contact with some portion of the body. Their venom is reported to be more virulent per unit than that of the rattlesnake and the bite, though very rare, can be quite painful and serious to man.

every human being they see. Even one species of Arizona cactus, the Cholla, is accused of actually jumping out at people. Of the hundreds of interesting harmless and beneficial little animals that inhabit the Southwest there are only a very few capable of inflicting a bite or sting dangerous to man. Of course, there are scores of less venomous creatures such as ants, wasps, bees, etc. Rare instances have been recorded where even the sting from a single honey bee was fatal to a person who by chance was highly allergic to that. particular toxin. However, such cases are the exception; therefore, only animals possessing more potent venom are considered in these pages. The only venomous animals worth mentioning here in that light are the rattlesnake, sidewinder, coral snake, Gila monster, black widow spider and the scorpion. Though the mildly poisonous centipede and still less poisonous tarantula are covered, their bite is of little relative consequence.

Without exception, all of these venomous creatures tend to be timid and non-aggressive. Their one desire, especially in the presence of man, is to get away and be left alone. It is only upon startling and molesting these animals that they resort to the use of devices which were basically intended for their assistance in food procurement. Full color photographic reproductions of specimens on one inch grid backgrounds have been included here along with brief descriptions in the interest of recognition and better understanding of these denizens of the desert.

Everyone who in any way is exposed to the possible bite or sting of the various venomous animals scattered throughout the world should be prepared in advance with reasonable knowledge and suitable first aid equipment for immediate assistance until a physician can be reached. This is not the place to recommend any one approved treatment for venomous bites or stings over another. Space here does not permit description of the "cut-and-suction" treatment which is relatively well known and has been described in many books and magazine articles and is explained by directions included in snake bite kits available at most any pharmacy. The newer uncomplicated but less known L-C treatment, which has proven satisfactory in practice to date without the frequently accompanying complications of the "cut-and-suction" method, is described in detail by Dr. Stahnke at the close of this article.

Many residents have lived a lifetime in Arizona without encountering even one of these venomous animals. Few persons happen onto a total of two or three species over a period of time. Even those whose occupations and hobbies take them constantly into all parts of the Southwest infrequently encounter venomous animals except when they are deliberately looking for them or probing about near their immediate environment. The coral snake, for example, rated as having the most potent venom of this group, is extremely rare and slow to anger and bite. Even the much-talked-of rattlesnake, that ranges nearly the entire United States, wants no trouble with the human race. Simple common sense watching where you are going or reaching while in southwestern snake country cuts the rattlesnake threat to practically nothing. The sluggish slow Gila monster wants only to be left alone and is rare enough to be protected by Arizona State law which prohibits killing or even having Gila monsters in possession without a special permit.

The real Public Enemy No. 1 of the poisonous animals of Arizona is but a tiny arachnid: the scorpion. Though there are at least 40 species of scorpions found ranging in three-fourths of the United States, in Canada and Mexico, there are only two known lethal species and both of them are found mostly in lower areas of Arizona and neighboring states. Though these two scorpions, the Centruroides sculpturatus and the Centruroides gertschi, are in the minority, their sting can be most serious and even deadly to children or adults in poor health unless prompt treatment is administered. An Arizona Department of Health report covering a twenty year period from 1928 to 1948 shows that these two species of scorpions were responsible for more than twice as many fatalities as all other venomous animals in Arizona put together, including rattlesnakes, Gila monsters, black widow spiders and venomous insects. It is estimated that nearly 3,000 persons in Arizona are stung by scorpions each year. Fortunately, only a small percentage of the scorpions encountered are the dangerous type.

The sting of the non-lethal scorpion causes primarily a local reaction such as swelling, painful burning feeling and discoloration at the site of the sting and even some distance from the sting. However, under ordinary circumstances there is no danger from this venom even to a child. A sting from the lethal species produces primarily a systemic reaction. It is a convulsant neurotoxin affecting the nervous system and causing convulsions. The first symptom at the site of the sting is a prickly-pin sharpness which may become quite painful. That spot becomes hypersensitive at once so that bumping it causes additional tingling sensations. A sort of prickly-pin sensation and numbness travels from the sting site causing a "woody" feeling. Some people have experienced severe tingling and "electric" sensations throughout their entire body. One who has experienced the sting of a ground scorpion and that of a centruroides species will never mistake the feeling produced by one for the other. For purposes of identification it is extremely important to note that this lethal venom does not produce a swelling or discoloration at the site of the sting.

The simple ice water or equivalent cold treatment as described at the close of this article applied promptly will, in most cases, offset even the serious effects from the sting of the sculpturatus and gertschi. In the few advanced cases where first aid is not applied promptly enough, or for some reason does not take care of the situation, a serum has been developed which has invariably brought immediate and satisfactory results. The story of this serum and the man who made it possible is worthy of relating not only for its own value as a successful humanitarian conquest, but as a fore-runner to a deeper and still greater quest regarding the study of somewhat hopeful effects of venoms in the treat-ment of mankind's real enemies, such as polio, cancer, arthri-tis, etc.

Extensive scientific research with venoms in Arizona has revolved, for nearly a quarter of a century, around the dreams, hopes and labors of Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke, head of the Department of Biological Sciences and director of the Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory at Arizona State College. Dr. Stahnke came west from Chicago in 1928 to make Arizona his home. He married shortly thereafter and by the time his first child was a few years old he had heard of a number of fatalities among children from scorpion sting. This caused him so much concern that he made an effort to find out all he could about scorpions and the best form of treatment that was available or recommended for victims of their sting. Information was scarce and even what he did read or hear was often contradicted by other sources of information. Most alarming of all, there seemed to be no sure treatment for the sting of the lethal species.

dreams, hopes and labors of Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke, head of the Department of Biological Sciences and director of the Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory at Arizona State College. Dr. Stahnke came west from Chicago in 1928 to make Arizona his home. He married shortly thereafter and by the time his first child was a few years old he had heard of a number of fatalities among children from scorpion sting. This caused him so much concern that he made an effort to find out all he could about scorpions and the best form of treatment that was available or recommended for victims of their sting. Information was scarce and even what he did read or hear was often contradicted by other sources of information. Most alarming of all, there seemed to be no sure treatment for the sting of the lethal species.

During the next few years, Dr. Stahnke collected speci-mens from all corners of the Southwest and through careful study and scientific observation and experimentation he became one of the best informed authorities on scorpions and other venomous animals of the Southwest. In recogni-tion of his work he is listed in "Who's Who" and a host of other leading indexes covering noted persons. In his poison-ous animals laboratory at Arizona State College he studied effects of various venoms on the bodily functions of lab-oratory rats. His findings in administering carefully measured non-lethal doses stirred his hopes and imagination to new and fascinating heights. Different venoms react in different ways. Scorpion venom, for example, reacts as a particular type of nerve stimulant. In controlled doses the doctor feels that venom might hold out great therapeutic possibilities in the treatment of polio paralysis by gradually stimulating the dormant nerves and muscles, encouraging them to function again. The reaction of venom on cancer cells is being studied with laboratory rats and mice and as assistance in starting this effort the laboratory received a $5,000 grant from the Damon Runyon Foundation.

The field of venom therapy is comparatively unexplored, and one with a seeming vast array of possibilities in the treatment of various human disorders. However, as is usually the case when new fields are being pioneered, there was the ever-present discouraging lack of sufficient funds needed to obtain the necessary costly equipment and assistance. There were no college funds available for such research so it was necessary to inch along painfully slowly on the proverbial shoestring. First things must come first and a serum to combat the effects of lethal scorpion sting was number one on Dr. Stahnke's list. Putting every spare moment to the challenge and with much makeshift laboratory equipment, most of it laboriously handmade he pushed his number one dream forward to the final stage. The result was a serum that worked near-miracles in saving lives of children who had been stung by the sculpturatus or gertschi and, because they had not received first aid in time, were in the last stages of convulsion preceding death. If becoming a world's leading authority on venomous animals was the first major milestone in his career, then practically wiping out the scorpion hazard of the Southwest was the second.

But then the problem was not completely whipped. All the years that went into study of venomous animals leading up to scorpion antitoxin were of little avail if the serum could not be produced in sufficient quantities to supply the entire area where it might sometime be needed. Distances in the Southwest are great and scorpion venom works fast.

A child stung in Yuma would receive little relief from a vial of serum in Tempe, no matter how excellent the serum was. And then, lethal scorpions are the least common in the state and 10,000 live ones of this species would be required each year to provide serum for all the possible danger areas in Arizona. To obtain 10,000 scorpions was an insurmount-able task without public cooperation. Then, even if the people of Arizona and neighboring states heard about this need, there was still no satisfactory means to send live scorpions to the laboratory. Though the mails were fast and efficient, postal regulations forbid using the mails for the transporting of live scorpions. Other methods of shipment proved either too costly or slow or the packages often were in the hot sun long enough so that as a general rule scorpions were in bad shape or dead upon arrival. In an effort to overcome this major obstacle in conquering the scorpion, by obtaining sufficient quantities of them as a venom supply for serum manufacture, Dr. Stahnke has designed a simple lightweight cylindrical mailing tube container with a plastic inner bag which is completely air-tight and escape-proof even if damaged or crushed. Since a scorpion could easily spend a week in such a sealed container and suffer no ill effects, it is the ideal answer for transportation to the laboratory from all parts of the state. In an effort to modify a postal regulation which all but blocks the serum program, Dr. Stahnke has the backing of many interested persons, including the Governor of Arizona and Arizona Senators in Washington, the Veterans of Foreign Wars, the Postmaster's Advisory Committee, the Postal Employees Union of Tucson and many others. Senate Bill No. 1886 has been introduced to "Permit shipment by mail of live scorpions to be used for medical research purposes." This bill is but awaiting approval of the Postmaster General, and with his understanding cooperation and endorsement will surely be acted upon, opening the way not only for adequate serum manufacture but for further advancement in the science of venom therapy. Even after the required number of scorpions is collected, each one has to be "milked" of its venom and much elaborate and expensive specially designed laboratory equipment is required to manufacture the serum on a proper scale. The venom has to be frozen and then all moisture content removed. Then it must be weighed to the fraction of a milligram and rediluted with a known quantity of distilled water. In small non-lethal doses it is periodically injected into the blood stream of a laboratory animal until an immunity is built up. And then a small amount of blood is drawn from the immunized animal and through more intricate sterile processing the serum separated from the red corpuscles is again frozen, dehydrated, weighed and bottled for distribution. The laboratory animals in this case are cats and few cats have a softer life. Not only do they enjoy temperature controlled sanitary quarters but their diet is balanced and ideal for their welfare. The gradual periodic venom doses cause them little or no discomfort and the only contribution they are called on to make is an occasional blood donation, no more bothersome than giving a pint of blood to the Red Cross is for a human being.

In the spring of 1951 the Tucson Daily Citizen, hearing of the serum and the lack of funds to supply the state, got behind Dr. Stahnke and put on a campaign to acquaint the citizens of Arizona with the need for scorpions and funds through donations to put the serum program in process. At once a series of informative news items and editorials placed the problem before the public. Response was immediate and generous. Temporary scorpion centers were set up and, while donations rolled in to the Daily Citizen, quantities of scorpions arrived daily through these centers to the laboratory in Tempe. Though most of them were the more common non-lethal ground scorpions, which were useless in the manufacture of serum, they were valuable for the venom therapy program. And enough sculpturatus arrived to start full scale operation.

On June 26, 1951, the Tucson Daily Citizen invited Dr. Stahnke to Tucson to receive a check for $4,500 to apply on the procurement of equipment and start the serum manufacture ball rolling. Two days later the Arizona State Legislature passed a bill giving an appropriation of $1,500 to finance a year's manufacture of serum. Dr. Stahnke, in appreciation of the splendid cooperation of this newspaper and the citizens of Arizona who contributed to the cause, took with him to Tucson the only two precious vials of serum he possessed and presented them to the Tucson Health Center.

Almost like a dramatic climax to a story, three days later little four-year-old Rachel Barraza of Tucson got up from her nap and started to get dressed for a party. As she picked up her shoe a tiny straw-colored scorpion dropped out and stung her on the thumb. She was rushed to a hospital but in only a few minutes the child was experiencing the specific symptoms of a fatal dose of venom. Suddenly the doctor recalled having read in the paper of the serum presented to the Tucson Health Center a few days before by Dr. Stahnke. The police were notified and a motorcycle patrolman rushed the serum from the medical center to the hospital where it was administered to the patient. In a short time Rachel was relaxed and over the crisis.Today in the refrigerator of Dr. Stahnke's laboratory, where only two tiny life-saving vials of antivenin once stood as guardians of life provided they could get to the patient in time, there are trays and trays of fresh serum available to any doctor or hospital throughout the state where they are needed, free for the requesting. In this dehydrated state the serum is good for five years and all that Dr. Stahnke asks in return is that a simple medical report form be filled out explaining when and how the serum was used and the results. When this form arrives in the laboratory a new supply of serum is automatically shipped to the sender.

These little vials of life-saving serum placed through-out the state are each a proud monument to a scientist who, facing a common fear, rolled up his sleeves and conquered it for the benefit of his fellow men. This accomplishment he takes in stride and never misses a step in his ceaseless effort to search for important scientific and humanitarian benefits in his field and to spread knowledge and useful information on this subject through all media available to him. With his busy schedule at Arizona State College, not only as a professor of zoology is he encouraging a new set of future scientists, but through radio, television, motion picture, authorship and personal lecture he is constantly dis-bursing much needed fact and understanding concerning the many and most interesting creatures of the Southwest which, as a whole, are so poorly understood. As a result, thousands of persons are discovering that some of the desert creatures they have dreaded most are completely harmless. They learn simple precautions in avoiding contact with the few animals that can do harm, and the proper steps steps to take in the event of accidental contact with resulting sting or bite. This understanding reduces the wanton slaughter of many species of harmless snakes, lizards and insects which are actually very beneficial to man in nature's scheme.

Occasionally voluntary contributions come to the laboratory from grateful parents of a child whose life has been saved by the serum with the request that this money be used to make more serum for others and to further the work in venom therapy. Though voluntary assistance aids immeasur-ably in advancing further research in venom therapy, to Dr. Stahnke the greatest encouragement of all for his tireless efforts and accomplishments and the greatest stimulation to push forward in this relatively new field in spite of a dis-couraging lack of time, assistance and equipment are the heart-warming letters he receives such as the following:

"Dear Dr. Stahnke:

On September 26th my year old son was stung by a scorpion. In my excitement all I knew to do was to get him to the hospital quickly. In just a few minutes after we got there, he was in convulsions. Our Doctor was called, and in the meantime ice packs applied. When the Doctor arrived, he gave medication, and the baby did not respond at all. It was then the Doctor said he would try your serum, for the first time. Thanks to you, and your priceless efforts, my baby is alive, after 3 hours of hard fighting.

Please accept my most humble thanks for what you are doing.

Sincerely, Mrs. Pauline Wheeler Phoenix, Arizona"

An excellent illustrated pamphlet for more complete data on venomous desert animals is Poisonous Dwellers of the Desert by Natt N. Dodge, available in most southwestern book stores or through the Southwestern Monuments Association at Santa Fe, New Mexico. The price is fifty cents.

For a complete illustrated treatise on scorpions, their description, habits, control and sting therapy, send twentyfive cents to The Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory, Arizona State College, Tempe, Arizona, for Bulletin 71, Scorpions by Herbert L. Stahnke, Ph.D.

The L-C Treatment of Venomous Bites or Stings BY HERBERT L. STAHNKE PH.D.

The so-called "cut-and-suction" treatment when used on venomous stings is not very effective. This fact we learned at an early date in our experiences with poisoning caused by the two lethal scorpions of the Southwest, i.e., Centruroides sculpturatus Ewing and C. gertschi Stahnke. In our first observations on the effect of rattlesnake venom, we were shocked at the suffering that patients had to undergo even though the best known treatments were administered. Out of these experiences grew the treatment now known as the L-C method, i.e., ligature and cryotherapy.

In treating a patient for venom poisoning two forces must be taken into consideration, the chemical effect of the toxin on the animal tissue and the action of possibly introduced bacteria from the bite or sting. If both of these are introduced in small enough quantities, the natural defensive forces of the body can neutralize their effects. The L-C method takes into account the above principle.

Let us assume that a person is stung or bitten by a venomous animal on one of the extremities, e.g., the tip of the index finger. Serious consequences may be averted by doing the following: 1. Place a ligature (a tight tourniquet) at once between the site of the bite or sting and the body, but as near the point of entrance of the venom as possible. A heavy piece of string or shoe-lace will serve very well as a ligature. A handkerchief, bandage, or necktie is not very suitable but will be better than nothing. The ligature can be effected by wrapping the string three or four times around the finger and then twisting it tightly, to the point of pain, by means of a small stick, nail, or other suitable object. Do not make any incisions at the site of the bite or sting. This is unnecessary and is only inviting more difficulties.

2. Now place a piece of ice on the site while preparing a suitable vessel of crushed ice and water.

3. Place the entire hand in the iced water prepared. In general, immerse the member bitten or stung in the iced water well beyond the location of the ligature.

4. After the hand, or other member, has been in the iced water for five minutes the ligature must be removed, but the hand is kept in the iced water for at least two hours. If the attacking animal was one of the two lethal scorpions, no serious effects will be experienced after this time. For the Gila monster, six to seven hours was found necessary. For rattlesnakes or other pit-vipers, the time element will depend upon the size of the attacking animal. At least six hours will be necessary in order to prevent serious destruction of tissue. For a large rattlesnake the patient may have to be treated for 14 to 20 hours. During this time it is imperative that the patient be kept warm so that circulation through all parts of the body except the poisoned member be good. If the individual is bitten on an area other than the extremities, a large ice-pack of finely divided ice may be used. If ethyl chloride is available, the temperature of the involved tissue can be reduced more quickly. An area of approximately three inches around and including the site of the bite or sting can be sprayed, taking care not to freeze the tissue. This can be accomplished by spraying only to the point of frost formation. After this has disappeared, the process should be repeated. When the area has become thoroughly chilled, it can be held in that condition with an ice-pack. In case of snake poisoning, where the swelling has advanced beyond the site of the bite, the appendage should be immersed in the iced water, or packed in crushed ice, well above the area of swelling.

In using cryotherapy, the initial pain experienced during the first five minutes must not be confused with the action of the venom. Likewise, there is no danger of frost bite where iced water, with nothing added, is used. When going into wild country, the camper, hunter or scientist can carry several metal tubes of ethyl chloride to be used in lieu of ice. If the procedure outlined above is used, one tube can be made to last about thirty minutes. Thus, two tubes, under normal conditions, would give sufficient time to get to ice and/or a physician.

Venom action is chemical action. For every 10° C. rise in temperature, chemical activity is doubled; the converse is likewise true. A hand kept in iced-water will have its temperature dropped from the normal body temperature of 37° C. to about 4-7° C. Consequently, the chemical activity at the site of injection is practically nil. The chemical action of venom in the body becomes harmful only when the natural defenses of the body are overwhelmed. The ligature holds the venom at the site of injection until the temperature of that region can be dropped. This lowered temperature causes the tissues to contract, and the capillaries and arterioles to constrict. Thus the venom is so held that it will enter the body very slowly and will be distributed throughout the body in an extremely diluted condition-too diluted to cause untoward effects.

Harmful bacteria are introduced with the bite of rattlesnakes and other biting venomous animals. In the presence of the venom and the normal body temperature these organisms thrive. When the body temperature is reduced by approximately 30 C. degrees, these organisms cannot multiply.

In addition to the above, we also have the anesthetic action of the cold and the providing of ample time to administer antitoxin where such is available. However, death can be prevented with the L-C treatment alone if sufficient time is given for its use.