THE STORY OF BUILDING ARIZONA FROM WILDERNESS TO WONDERLAND

THE STORY OF BUILDING ARIZONA From A Wilderness

Engineers by traditional performance if not by dictionary definition are a tough, genious, daring and intellectually vigor ous breed of men.

Their building of modern Arizona from a raw and forbidding wilderness must rank as one of the greatest engineering achievements of all times.

For the purposes of this treatise, the defi nition of "engineer" should not be limited to those highly specialized senses in which the word is most often used today. A few score, a few hundred, or a few thousand years ago an engineer was anyone who designed and built a new device to make his and his neighbor's survivel in their environment a little bit easier. In this sense the man who first lashed a stone to a stick to make an axe was a very real engineer.

In prehistoric and especially in the early historic days in Arizona, it was the engineer, along with the cook, who begat one of the great abiding traditions of Arizona, the tradition of "make do." If you did not have the ideal ingredients, tools, and facilities to accomplish a given purpose, you made do with what you had at hand.

The central part of Arizona, specifically the Salt River Valley, often has been likened to the Nile River Valley, the Cradle of Civiliza tion. Certainly there are striking similarities in climate and topography, and these similarities account for the fact that the prehistoric peoples of the Salt River Valley evolved a system of agriculture like that developed by the early civilizations along the Nile.

Remarkable as these similarities are, however, one great difference is even more startling. Whereas people of the Nile Valley very early emerged from the Stone Age into the Bronze Age and then into the Iron Age, the prehistoric peoples of the Salt River Valley and the rest of Arizona never developed any metal-working culture, and thus then remained in the Stone Age until the arrival of Europeans.

Why this was so is a matter of speculation. The origins of the Hohokams and the other peoples who preceded the white man in this area are obscured in antiquity, yet anthropolo gists are in some accord that the Hohokams and many of the other Indian peoples originated in Mongolia and migrated to this part of the world by way of the Bering Straits toward the end of the last Ice Age. The Egyptians and other Mediterranean peoples by this time were already well embarked into the Bronze Age, but apparently the people who came to North America had been only nomadic tribes who bad wandered across the Asian land mass with out ever having been exposed to a metal-work ing culture.

It is interesting also to speculate on why these people failed to evolve a metal-working culture of their own when they finally reached Arizona. Certainly when they arrived here there was a relatively large amount of native copper lying on the surface of the earth available for them to use had they had any interest.

Why, then, did not Arizona Indians evolve an independent metal-working culture? Did the Arizona land present so many problems in the matter of making a living that their entire energies were occupied in day-to-day pursuits? Were summer heat, prolonged droughts, spor adic floods so severe as to occupy all the creative energies of these early Arizonans? This would seem a logical explanation. These certainly were not unimaginative people. We have many evidences of their artistic talents and their engineering skill.

The Hohokams, for example, developed an outstanding system of irrigation canals and ditches. Some of their canals rivaled modern

BY EDWARD H. PEPLOW, JR. Into A Wonderland

ones in dimensions; some were seven feet deep, thirty feet wide and up to sixteen miles long. More than 175 miles of Hohokam canals have been discovered in the Salt River Valley alone, and a great many have been restored to use by modern farmers.

Equally remarkable were the building skills demonstrated by several of the prehistoric peoples. The Sinaguans, who built Montezuma Castle in the Verde Valley, achieved a structure outstanding as both a fortress and as an apartment house. Their basic materials were native stone and adobe as mortar, and they built in a cave in the face of a cliff high above the valley floor, safe from their enemies and the elements.

The Mimbres, Anasazis and other northern peoples were expert in building also. The Mimbres, for example, built kivas, large subterranean chambers containing fire pits and ventilator shafts. They and the Anasazi also built large villages of houses made of native stone, chinked with adobe-like mud as a sort of mortar but serving the primary purpose of keeping out the elements. They relied on the thickness of walls for structural strength.

Another instance of reliance upon thickness and bulk is the Casa Grande, the remains of which are a National Monument near Coolidge. The Salado people, who built it, improvised with material new to them, adobe. They were immigrants from the north and were accustomed to stone masonry; but in the absence of good stone, they adopted the adobe of their Hohokam neighbors but not the Hohokams' manner of building. Whereas the Hohokams had progressed from pit houses, dug into the earth, to ground-surface structures in contiguous rows of a dozen or more rooms and surrounded by a compound wall, the Salados thought in terms of multistoried buildings. In the Casa Grande they seem to have reached a zenith, for there they achieved a structure four stories high and containing sixteen roorns.

They did not use adobe blocks, as did their neighbors. Instead they just poured the adobe in mass, making the bottom of the walls as much as six feet thick, and tapering the walls as they rose so that each wall was a single, solid slab of adobe. They did not consciously use a binder, such as straw or sticks.

The Hohokams, on the other hand, did frequently use sticks as cores around which to plaster adobe and thus attain greater stability and a relatively thinner wall. This method of building was used, of course, after they had advanced from pit houses.

But soon after they had begun building ground-surface structures, they faced a problem modern dwellers in the Salt River Valley find hard to believe. The underground water table in the Valley was so high in those days that in spots it became a nuisance, seeping up into houses. Possibly that is what first impelled the Hohokams to abandon their pit dwellings, and it almost certainly accounts for the fact that they many times later filled existing houses with dirt and then built on top. The Pueblo Grande ruins in Phoenix illustrate this type of commu nity reconstruction.

All of the building, all of the pottery making, the weaving, the hunting, the farming, the canal building and other activities of these people were carried on without the help of metals. Advanced as they became in many facets of their cultures, it is interesting to speculate what they might have achieved and what the consequent changes in Arizona's history would have been had they found and used the bonanza of metals in the area. continued

Over the course of the next two and a half centuries there was considerable exploration of the Arizona area by the Spanish, the Mexicans and in the 1820's and 1830's by American mountain men. In the southern part of the territory there were some small mining operations, and a number of large cattle ranches grew up there. But the real impetus for the taming of this wilderness did not come until the halls of Congress rang with the cry that it was "the manifest destiny" of the vigorous, young United States to be "an ocean-to-ocean republic." This, of course, would be feasible only if some land route for transcontinental transportation could be found. It became clear that the only way such a route could be established was by going south around the feet of the mountains that formed an almost impassable wall across the continent from the Canadian border south to below the Gila. Not entirely to the country's credit, this was the real reason why the United States went to war in 1846.

By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which went into effect July 4, 1848, Mexico ceded to the United States all of what are now the states of Arizona, New Mexico, California, Nevada, Utah and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. During the war the Mormon Battalion, led by Phillip St. George Cooke and guided by two famous mountain men, Pauline Weaver and Antoine Leroux, mapped the first feasible wagon route across the southern part of the United States.

Stephen Watts Kearny, with the help of such scouts as Kit Carson, also marched across the territory during the war with Mexico and made considerable contributions to the country's knowledge of the land. His route was from El Paso to the Gila, along the Gila to the Colorado and thence across the Colorado below its junction with the Gila into California.

The first official exploration of what is now Arizona by the U. S. Government, however, did not occur until 1851, when Captain Lorenzo Sitgreaves was ordered to re-explore the ancient route by which the Spanish had made their way from the Zuñi villages by the Little Colorado and Colorado Rivers down to the Gulf of Lower California. Sitgreaves did not follow the rivers through their canyons, however; instead he mapped a land route which approximated that later followed by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad.

Establishment of these southern and northern routes across Arizona had great significance for the fast-growing United States, and did much to help it attain its manifest destiny. But, in the beginning, they did little for Arizona except to make it a way station en route to bustling California. When James Marshall discovered gold at Coloma, California, on January 24, 1848, however, he did much more than start the famous gold rush of the '49ers. He also unwittingly provided the impetus that brought Arizona to the nation's consciousness as something more valuable than an obstacle on the road to California.

Meanwhile, the Apache Indians took a rather jaundiced view of the sudden incursion of the white man into their traditional hunting grounds. Frequent Apache raids made it necessary for the new settlers and explorers either to band together in such numbers the Apache would hesitate to attack, or to have military protection. Since very few of the mines would support more than a handful of men, the alternative of military protection was necessary.

Thus there were established throughout the territory in the years following its acquisition a growing number of military posts to protect the miners. This, in turn, encouraged immigration of farmers and cattlemen to supply the markets created by the soldiers and miners. And immediately behind the farmers and cattlemen came the merchants to supply the needs of all.

Even in those days, however, the development of Arizona was largely dependent upon the solution of engineering problems. The vastness of the land and its remoteness from the more populated parts of the country presented tremendous transportation problems. In the very earliest days of the white man one of these

By mid-century the playing out of the California gold fields - renewed mining activities in the southern part of the state and the Gadsden Purchase projected the new territory into the national spotlight.

Shortly after the Mexican-American war ended, it became apparent that the southern boundary of what is now Arizona had been drawn too far north, along the Gila. The more feasible wagon route lay south of that. Therefore, by the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, the United States bought that part of the state that lies between the Gila and the present southern boundary.

By the time the purchase was ratified, in 1854, two things had happened. First, the goldfields in California were playing out, and men were wandering away seeking their fortunes elsewhere. And, second, stories of Spanish mining activities in the Santa Cruz and San Pedro Valley exaggerated out of all reason - were beginning to circulate in the East.

Consequently, immediately upon ratification of the Gadsden Purchase, there were men like Charles D. Poston and Henry Ehrenberg ready to put the stories to the test. In the Santa Cruz Valley, with Tubac as headquarters, Poston succeeded in establishing a reasonably successful mining district, working shallow, surface rich deposits of silver, while Ehrenberg and others found some rich placers of gold on the Gila and Colorado Rivers. Typical boom towns sprang up overnight, and the rush was on.

was presented by the Colorado River; how to cross it was a question which always had to be faced. Many ferry ventures came and went at Yuma Crossing before a railroad bridge finally was built late in the 1870's. In 1852, however, a good start was made toward solving some of the transportation problems. On September 3, 1852, the schooner Capacity sailed to the headwaters of the Gulf of California, carrying the equipment and supplies for the building of a steamboat designed to carry a payload in only twenty-two inches of water. The little vessel was built on the banks of the river in less than three months. When completed, she was sixty-five feet long, with a sixteen-foot beam, sharp bow and stern. Her paddles were powered by a locomotivetype boiler that developed twenty horsepower, and her freight capacity was thirty-two tons. Christened the Uncle Sam, she was by far the largest vessel that had ever navigated the Colorado as far up as Yuma Crossing. There she arrived on December 3, 1852, billowing smoke, emitting shrill blasts from her whistle, and scaring the Yuma Indians half to death.

YUMA, founded on the emigrant route to the west coast, has always been an important city in Arizona history. Now a vast system of dams and canals make it the heart of a rich agricultural area.

Early day steamboats on the Colorado were a major engineering achievement in solving the vital transportation problem.

The Uncle Sam was followed over the course of years by a series of other steamboats which plied the Colorado as far up as nearly to the Grand Canyon. They have been described as "designed to float on a heavy dew," and it is reported they often had to. In those days, of course, there was no Panama Canal or transcontinental railroad; so the bulk of the freight brought from and to the West was transported by ocean vessel around the Horn. It was a long, tedious and expensive haul, and the ingenious little river boats did a good job of transshipping goods up and down the Colorado. Unfortunately, however, one aftermath of the era of the Colorado river boat is still with us. Small as they were, the little steamers had voracious appetites. They burned wood; there were no oil burners in those days, and coal had not been developed in this part of the world. Consequently many an Indian, out-of-luck white man and patient burro earned a living by cutting and hauling cordwood along the river. It was not long before they were cutting farther and farther back from the river itself, up the tributaries and down the draws, anywhere there remained growth enough to supply usable fuel.

While the designing, building and navigating of steamers on the Colorado constitutes a colorful chapter in the building of Arizona, and while the years between the acquisition of the area by the United States and the Civil War seem to the casual observer a relatively unexciting period of Arizona's history, during the period 1843-63 some extremely challenging and basically important engineering projects were undertaken. The word "undertaken" is used instead of completed because some of them still are incomplete. For instance, the mapping of that vast area of land ceded under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. There still are areas of Arizona and the other states that have not been completely surveyed and accurately mapped. Today the remainder of the task does not seem staggering; it's just a matter of time and available manpower. Yet basically sound surveys of both the international border and of the boundaries of the individual territories were accomplished. So also were more detailed surveys of the routes for wagon roads, stage lines, and most especially for the transcontinental railroads which even then were high in priority in the nation's planning. Of those that crossed present-day Arizona, the more northern left Fort Smith, Arkansas, crossed the territory that now is Oklahoma and the panhandle of Texas, ran through Tucumcari, New Mexico, and followed close to the present routes of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad and U.S. 66, finally terminating at Los Angeles. The more southern ran across Texas in a south-southwesterly direction to El Paso, came through Arizona via Apache Pass to Tucson, then went northwesterly to the Pima Villages and the Gila River, which it followed to Fort Yuma. There it crossed the Colorado and terminated at San Diego. This is essentially the route of today's Southern Pacific Railroad. In September, 1857, the first coaches of the San Antonio & San Diego Mail Stage Line traveled Cooke's wagon road through Arizona. In 1858 the Butterfield Overland Mail succeeded the SA & SD, and that same year a road was completed from El Paso via Tucson to Fort Yuma and San Diego.

The founding and development of two great railroad systems preceded the Civil War days.

NOTES FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS THE PHOTOGRAPHIC STORY OF ARIZONA EMERGING FROM A RAW WILDERNESS INTO A WONDERLAND OF ACHIEVEMENT PORTRAYS INSPIRED CITIZENRY ON THE MARCH. OPPOSITE PAGE

"U.S. 60 CONQUERS THE MIGHTY GORGE OF THE SALT RIVER" BY CARLOS ELMER. Road building in Arizona, from early days, was always a perplexing and difficult problem. Roads and highways, so vital to the state's economy, had to be built over rugged terrain, for long distances, and with a small population to afford to build and support them. This photograph dramatizes the engineer's eventual triumph in carving a modern, high-speed highway through almost impassable country. Shown here is U.S. 60 through Salt River Gorge (listed on maps as "Salt River Canyon") forty miles north of Globe in Gila County. Burke & James Press camera; Ektachrome; f.18 at 1/50th sec.; 90mm Schneider Angulon lens; bright day; ASA rating 50.

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"NAVAJO BRIDGE AND VERMILLION CLIFFS" BY DARWIN VAN CAMPEN. Navajo Bridge (shown here) is a historic landmark in Arizona road building. The bridge, 126 miles north of Flagstaff, on Alt. U.S. 89, was open for traffic January 12, 1929. Construction of the bridge in Marble Canyon opened easy access and travel to Utah and other Rocky Mountain states, allowing crossing of the Colorado River 467 feet below. The modern highway skirts the colorful Vermillion Cliffs (in the background) for miles. 4x5 Linhof camera; Ektachrome; f.27 at 1/25th sec.; 127mm Ektar lens; September; bright afternoon sunlight; Weston Meter 300; ASA rating 64.

"CREATION IN STEEL SPANS BURRO CREEK" BY CARLOS ELMER. Photo taken on Burro Creek, U.S. 93 between Kingman and Wickenburg, about fifty miles northwest of the latter community. This view gives a glimpse of the beautiful new high bridge that spans Burro Creek Gorge in Mohave County some 400 feet above the stream. This normally tiny trickle of water can become a raging flood. In this view, heavy cloudbursts the preceding two days had resulted in a record flow in Burro Creek and many other streams in this portion of the state. Burke & James Press camera; Ektachrome; f.16 at 1/100th sec.; 6" Goertz Aerotar lens; bright day; ASA rating 50.

"INTERSTATE 40 THROUGH THE HIGH COUNTRY" BY CARLOS ELMER. Photo taken west of Flagstaff on Interstate 40. The red road and contrast with snow made this an interesting view of the new super-highway that will soon span all of Northern Arizona along the general route of old U.S. 66. Highway building in Arizona has been a herculean task to keep up with the expanding traffic. Over the 5,364 miles of highways in the state system, local passenger cars in 1966 traveled 5,131,000 miles, out-of-state passenger cars traveled 4,444,000 miles, cars and commercial vehicles traveled 3,698,000 miles, for a total of 13,273,000 miles traveled. In contrast in 1961, 4,932 miles of highway in the state system carried a total traffic load of 10,071,000 miles traveled for local, out-of-state and commercial vehicles. Highway planners and builders in Arizona keep busy and busier! 4x5 Burke & James Press camera; Ektachrome; f. 16 at 1/100th sec.; 15" Schneider Tele-Xenar lens; winter; bright day; ASA rating 50.

"SWITCHBACKS CLIMB OUT OF OAK CREEK CANYON" BY BOB BRADSHAW. Photo was taken from the west rim of Oak Creek Canyon, showing the switchbacks in Arizona 179 leaving the extreme upper end of the canyon. The view from lookouts on this portion of the highway are spectacular, to say the least. 4x5 Crown Graphic camera; Ektachrome; f.16 at 1/50th sec.; Optar lens; July; bright sunlight.

"ROOSEVELT DAM THE SALT IS FINALLY TAMED" BY DAVID MUENCH. Theodore Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River 79 miles east of Phoenix via Arizona 88 (the Apache Trail) is a landmark in the history of U. S. Reclamation. The first stone in this masonry dam was laid September 20, 1906. The structure was completed February 5, 1911, and was dedicated by President Theodore Roosevelt on March 18th of that year. The dam is 284 feet high and at its base is 184 feet thick. Completion of this dam was the first step in creating the present agricultural empire of the Salt River Valley. Linhof IV camera; Ektachrome; f.20 at 1/50th sec.; Wide Field Ektar lens; April; slightly overcast afternoon lighting; meter reading 14-; ASA rating 64.

"GLEN CANYON DAM ANOTHER TRIUMPH ON THE COLORADO" BY JOSEF MUENCH. This photograph was taken from a designated visitor's viewpoint just west of Glen Canyon Dam on U.S. 89, 134 miles north of Flagstaff. Glen Canyon Dam, the second largest structure on the Colorado River and the last built, forms beautiful Lake Powell behind it. At the time when this picture was taken all the different outlets were open for testing purposes. A total of 52,000 second-feet of water was thus released. Glen Canyon Bridge, highest structure of this type in the world, is seen a quarter of a mile below the dam spanning the canyon 700 feet above the river. 4x5 Linhof camera; Ektachrome; f.22 at 1/50th sec.; 6" Xenar lens; May; sunny day.

"THE VERDE RIVER AND BARTLETT DAM" BY DARWIN VAN CAMPEN. Photo taken along the Verde River just below Bartlett Dam. The dam, completed in 1939, was built to store waters of the Verde for use by the Salt River Project in farming lands of the Salt River Valley and for river control. The dam is 193 feet above the stream bed, and measures 1,063 feet in length at its crest. The lake formed by the dam has a capacity of 182,608 acre-feet of water. This and other lakes on the Verde and Salt River are filled to overflowing this spring. 4x5 Linhof camera; Ektachrome; f.20 at 1/25th sec.; 360mm Tele-Xenar lens; May; late afternoon sunlight; Weston Meter 200; ASA rating 50.

"VERDE RIVER OVERFLOWING HORSESHOE DAM" BY HERB MCLAUGHLIN. Horseshoe Dam is another dam on the Verde River, built for river control and water storage. The lake behind the dam is a popular recreational area. 4x5 Speed Graphic camera; Eastman E-3; f.63 at 1/500th sec.; 6" Ektar lens; sunny day; ASA rating 50.

"CANAL SCENE NORTH OF PHOENIX" BY DARWIN VAN CAMPEN. Photograph taken just off Seventh Street in north Phoenix. This view shows one of the canals which serves the Salt River Project in providing irrigation water for portions of the Salt River Valley; 4x5 Linhof camera; Ektachrome; f.27 at 1/25th sec.; 210mm Symmar lens; March; bright sunlight; Weston Meter 300; ASA rating 64.

"DESERT TURNED TO GREEN-NEAR GILA BEND" BY JOSEF MUENCH. This scene was photographed along old U. S. 80 between the towns of Buckeye and Gila Bend. Waters from the Gila River, as well as pump water raised from underground, are used to make the once barren desert put forth a velvet green, such as these alfalfa fields, in productive agricultural use. 4x5 Linhof camera; Ektachrome; f.18 at 1/50th sec.; 6" Xenar lens; April; sunny day.

"IMPERIAL DAM NEAR YUMA" BY CARLOS ELMER. Imperial Dam is located north of Yuma near the Yuma Proving Ground Headquarters on the Colorado River. The dam was named for Imperial Valley, California, the largest acreage served by water from the Colorado through the All-American Canal. Burke & James Press camera; Ektachrome; f.18 at 1/50th sec.; 90mm Schneider Angulon lens; bright day; ASA rating 50.

"SPRECKELS SUGAR PLANT CHANDLER" BY HERB MCLAUGHLIN. With the construction of the Spreckels Sugar Plant near Chandler, sugar beets became an important agricultural crop in the Salt River Valley. 4x5 Speed Graphic camera; Eastman E-3; f.6.3 at 1/500th sec.; 6" Ektar lens; autumn; sunny day; ASA rating 50.

NOTES FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS . . . continued from page sixteen CENTER PANEL

"PHOENIX-GROWING CITY IN THE SUN" BY BOB MARKOW. Phoenix today is a lot different from the village on the banks of the Salt River whose few but enthusiastic citizens met October 15, 1870, and selected an official townsite. Town lots went on sale December 23rd of that year. A few visionaries and dreamers saw possibilities of using waters from the Salt for irrigation purposes, but the full potentialities of water and desert land were not realized until construction of Theodore Roosevelt Dam. Within the city limits today reside over 519,000 people on 247.3 square miles. View shows downtown Phoenix looking northward. Speed Graphic camera; Ektachrome E-3; f.9 at 1/250th sec.; 61/2" Optar lens; bright sun; Lunasix 21 meter reading; ASA rating 50.

"PHOENIX-ENCANTO PARK IN THE HEART OF THE CITY" BY HERB MCLAUGHLIN. Phoenicians are proud of their park system. This view shows Encanto Park, a popular community recreational area. 4x5 Speed Graphic camera; Eastman E-3; f.6.3 at 1/500th sec.; 6" Ektar lens; sunny day; ASA rating 50.

"PHOENIX-A SUNNY WINTER SCENE" BY EARL PETROFF. This photograph was taken from South Mountain Park, which overlooks Phoenix. This view is looking northeast over Phoenix. Total distance is approximately fifty miles. This photo was taken with an extremely long focal length lens in order to compress a distance of about fifty miles into one photograph. Trailer cabanas in foreground, orange and grapefruit citrus groves in middle distance, Phoenix and then the snow on the mountains north of Cave Creek. 4x5 Speed Graphic camera; E-3 Ektachrome; f.22 at 1/50th sec.; Tessar lens; December; bright sunny morning; 20+ on Lunasix meter reading; ASA rating 50.

"BUSY SKY HARBOR-PHOENIX" BY BOB MARKOW. Sky Harbor, Phoenix Municipal Airport, is one of the busiest in the country. Major airlines now connect this airport with larger population centers throughout the U. S. Extension of present facilities are now in the planning stage. In 1966 Sky Harbor reported 971,000 arriving passengers and 972,300 departures, or a total passenger use of 1,943,300. Total passenger use of Sky Harbor in 1960 was 859,700. 4x5 Speed Graphic camera; Ektachrome E-3 Daylight; f.9 at 1/250th sec.; 61/2" Optar lens; February; bright sun; Lunasix 21 meter reading; ASA rating 50.

"PHOENIX-MARICOPA COUNTY COMPLEX" BY BOB MARKOW. Maricopa County's new governmental headquarters in downtown Phoenix bespeaks the importance of Arizona's largest county, population-wise, in the affairs of the state. Indicating the growth of the county are these figures: Population, 1940, 186,193; population, 1967, 890,000. Calumet View camera; E-3 Ektachrome Daylight; f.32 at 1/10th sec.; 90mm Angulon lens; April; bright sun; Lunasix 21 meter reading; ASA rating 50.

"TUCSON-THE HISTORIC OLD PUEBLO" BY RAY MANLEY. Tucson, Arizona's second largest city, now a bustling desert metropolis, the home of the University of Arizona, figured prominently in the history of Spanish, Mexican and pioneer eras. Estimated population of Tucson July 1, 1967, was 241,000 (from 35,752 in 1940). Pima County, of which Tucson is the county seat, as of July 1, 1967, had an estimated population of 328,000. View shows downtown Tucson in foreground with residential Tucson spreading to the foothills of the Santa Catalinas. 5x7 Manley Aerial camera; high speed Ektachrome; f.11 at 1/400th sec.; 210mm lens; bright morning sun; Meter Reading 400; ASA rating 160.

"FOLKS ARE MOVING INTO RED ROCK COUNTRY" BY BOB MARKOW. The red rock country of Sedona, as other parts of Arizona, has been enjoying an unprecedented population growth. Photo shows new developments in the area. 4x5 Speed Graphic camera; E-3 Ektachrome Daylight; f. 18 at 1/50th sec.; 135mm Optar lens; June; bright sun; Lunasix 21 meter reading; ASA rating 50.

"PRESCOTT-METROPOLIS OF OLD YAVAPAI" BY BOB BRADSHAW. Photo shows overpass just north of Prescott. Road at left side of picture (Arizona 69) goes to Phoenix. Highway under the overpass which goes to the right side of picture (Alt. U. S. 89) leads to Fort Whipple, Ash Fork and Oak Creek Canyon. Bigger and better highways in recent years have more tightly knitted Arizona communities together. Prescott, county seat of Yavapai County, is a center of a large cattle industry, home of Prescott College, home of Ft. Whipple Veterans' Hospital, and in recent years has attracted a growing colony of retired persons and sun-seekers. Crown Graphic camera; Ektachrome; f.16 at 1/100th sec.; Optar lens; June; bright sunlight; ASA rating 50.

"LAVENDER OPEN PIT MINE AT BISBEE" BY RAY MANLEY. Arizona could well be called "The Copper State," producing (in 1966) 51.4% of all copper mined in the United States, more than all other states put together. Shown here is Lavender Pit, the Phelps Dodge Corporation's mining operation at Bisbee. 5x7 Manley Aerial camera; Daylight Ektachrome; f.9 at 1/400th sec.; 210 Symmar lens; midday sun; Meter Reading 350; ASA rating 64; overdeveloped 1-stop.

"KENNECOTT'S COPPER DIGGINGS AT RAY" BY CARLOS ELMER. View shows the open pit copper mine north of Ray, Arizona, in Pinal County, operated by the Kennecott Copper Corporation. This mine was the sixth largest copper-producing mine in the U. S. in 1966. The largest: Kennecott's great mine at Bingham Canyon, Utah. Burke & James Panoram camera; Ektachrome 120 Professional; f.9 at 1/100th sec.; 5" Ross lens; late afternoon; ASA rating 50.

"HERE AT MORENCI COPPER IS KING" BY DARWIN VAN CAMPEN. Photo taken along an abandoned mine road overlooking the Phelps Dodge Corporation's open pit copper mine at Morenci, the second largest copper-producing mine in the U. S. in 1966. Copper production in Arizona in 1966 was valued at $535,000,000. 4x5 Linhof camera; Ektachrome; f.30 at 1/25th sec.; 90mm Super Angulon lens; September; bright sunlight; Weston Meter 400; ASA rating 50.

"NEW CORNELIA'S OPEN PIT AT AJO" BY JOSEF MUENCH. The Phelps Dodge Corporation's New Cornelia open pit mine is located at Ajo, in Pima County on Arizona 85, about fifty miles south of Gila Bend. Phelps Dodge generously provides a viewpoint from which "sidewalk superintendents" can observe the complete operation of gouging out the earth for the precious metal. Trains are seen at different levels being loaded to haul the ore to the nearby smelter. New Cornelia was the 7th largest copper-producing mine in the U. S. in 1966. Pima County was the leading Arizona county in mineral production in 1966 with mineral yield valued at $162,020,777. Pinal County was second with mineral yield valued at $151,631,186. Of the 25 largest copper producing mines in the U. S. in 1966, 15 were Arizona mines. 4x5 Linhof camera; Ektachrome; f.11 at 1/100th sec.; 6" Xenar lens; April; sunny day. ASA rating 64.

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"NIGHT OF THE FIESTA-SAN XAVIER MISSION" BY RAY MANLEY. San Xavier Del Bac Mission, near Tucson, is one of the historic structures in Arizona. While foundations for this mission were begun by Father Kino in April, 1700, a church was eventually built but was destroyed during the Pima revolt in 1767. Present San Xavier was built between 1783-1797. Described as the "best preserved and most beautiful of all missions in the Spanish Southwest," it is still used by the devout Indians living on nearby farms. Several colorful fiestas are staged at San. Xavier each year. 4x5 View camera; Daylight Ektachrome; f.11 time exposure; 135mm Symmar lens; April; total darkness; exposure for fire, fireworks and car lights.

MAY The late light lies like champagne on the hills. The shadows slant. The wind is still. The day Will presently be gone. Each canyon fills With bluer, deeper shade while ridges stay Bright as a knife and sharp in this last light That spreads its golden mist before the night. Sylvia Lewis Kinney

WILDERNESS TO WONDERLAND from page 15

Simultaneously new discoveries of metals were being made in the area, and by 1861 the population of Gila City on the Gila River had reached 1,200, making it the largest settlement in Arizona. But on July 23, 1861, U.S. troops were ordered to abandon Forts Buchanan and Breckenridge, and the managers of the stage stations were ordered to withdraw from the territory, burning their buildings and other facilities behind them. Overnight the territory was left unprotected, and the miners, farmers, ranchers and merchants had only what protection they could mutually afford each other.

The Apaches interpreted these events to mean that the white man had decided to surrender, and they immediately launched an intensive campaign to wipe out all the stragglers. At the same time the Confederate States of America recognized Arizona as a valuable source of gold and silver so necessary to the successful prosecution of the Civil War. In July, 1861, sixty-eight Americans convened in Tucson and formally declared the Territory of Arizona as part of the Confederacy. On August I their action was confirmed by Lieutenant Colonel John R. Baylor, who formally proclaimed the formation of the Confederate Territory of Arizona. His action was ratified January 18, 1862, when Jefferson Davis signed an act of the Confederate Congress. One month and ten days later the Confederate army took possession of Tucson.

These actions directed the attention of the Union to Arizona as a potential source of replenishment of its treasury. Thus on May 20, 1862, Union troops reoccupied Tucson, and Colonel James H. Carleton proceeded to organize the Territory of Arizona for the Union. On February 24, 1863, President Lincoln signed into law the Ashley Bill which gave Arizona very nearly its present boundaries as part of the United States of America.

From that time forward the builders of Arizona pressed relentlessly forward, impelled now by the hope of striking it rich or by the desire to serve those who had. Large exploring groups, such as the Weaver and Walker parties, strong enough to defend themselves against the Indians, drove into the more remote parts of the territory and, in many cases, did indeed strike it rich.

Post war developers and entrepreneurs engineered the foundations of Phoenix and the modern irrigation system.

A thriving mining industry was established in the Bradshaw Mountain area around what is now Prescott and in the northwestern part of Arizona near what is now Oatman. Such worldfamous mines as the Vulture were discovered.

Not all of the discoverers of these mines, however, grew rich. Witness poor Henry Wickenburg. Henry quite literally stumbled over the fabulous gold ore of the Vulture, and he thereby became owner of a great bonanza. But the evidence is that Henry was woefully lacking in the most basic mining engineering skills. The story is that in July, 1864, Wickenburg was having great difficulty operating the arrastra he had tried to build to extract the gold from his rich ore. A friend is said to have helped him in this elementary phase of his education, but Henry eventually just leased mining rights to anybody who came along and was willing to pay him $15 a ton for ore.

In 1866 Wickenburg sold a four-fifths interest in the Vulture to Benjamin Phelps of Philadelphia for $85,000. (Phelps was not related to the Phelps of Phelps Dodge Corporation, of subsequent importance in Arizona mining.) The Vulture is reported to have gone on to produce a total of $2,500,000 worth of gold during its first six years.

Phelps installed an efficient twenty-stamp mill, which was excellent mining practice. It made great returns in terms of the dollars of the day, but unfortunately the mill was powered by steam. Like the boats on the Colorado, the boiler had a voracious appetite, and soon the hills around Wickenburg were denuded of virtually every tree that could serve as fuel.

While the search for metals continued unabated, other interests began to stand more and more on their own feet. There was no question but that Arizona would for many, many years to come depend primarily for its income on mining, but men of vision also foresaw that eventually farming and livestock would find markets outside of the mining camps.

Perhaps "Lord" Darrell Duppa was prophet for this group when, in 1867, he stood atop the mound of earth that is today known as the ruins of Pueblo Grande on East Washington Street, Phoenix, and surveyed the scene around him. Drawing upon the classical education he had received as the son of landed English gentry, and perhaps inspired by the spirits.he and his fellow pioneers had been imbibing, he said with a grand gesture, "Let us call the town we shall build here Phoenix, for, like the mythological bird, there shall arise here from the ashes of the past a civilization ever more beautiful."

During the late 1860's and early 1870's it had become apparent that the transcontinental railroads which had been a fascinating dream for so long certainly were going to become realities. When that happened it would mean that cattlemen, sheepmen and farmers no longer were dependent upon long, difficult drives or local markets. Thus there was a great influx of the livestock interests, and virtually every square foot of available range was taken up.

Great as was this growing awareness of Arizona's potential, the Apaches continued to act as a very real deterrent upon its growth. For twenty years the nation witnessed the improbable spectacle of several thousand Union troops trying vainly to subdue at most a few hundred Indians. The situation reached its most ludicrous peak when, in the mid 1880's, there were some 5,500 American soldiers trying to bottle up and capture Geronimo and his band of not more than one hundred Apaches.

It was General Nelson A. Miles, who took command of the campaign in 1885, who finally solved the problem. His solution was a simple but effective engineering breakthrough. For many years the Indians military intelligence service had far outstripped that of the U.S. Army. Army troops were unable to make any move without the Indians knowing it almost as soon as it happened. The Army's telegraph lines had failed miserably.The first telegraph line in Arizona, the Deseret, began functioning in 1871, connecting the Mormon settlements in Utah with that at Pipe Spring in Northern Arizona. Two years later Congress had caused a line to be built connecting San Diego, Yuma, Tucson and Prescott. By 1877 there were about 1,000 miles of wire in operation within the territory, connecting virtually all of the military posts with each other and with Santa Fe on the east and San Diego on the west.

It did not take the Apaches long to discover, however, how easy it was to cut the singing telegraph wires and thus communications. General Miles' idea obviated such breaks. He installed heliograph stations on twenty-seven strategically located mountain peaks across the territory. These flashing communications the Indians were unable to break, nor could they break the Morse Code in which they were sent.

Thus Miles' command soon achieved a coordination unheard of previously. One time the Miles stations transmitted a message 800 miles over nearly impassable mountain terrain in less than four hours. It is reported they handled 2,264 messages between May 1 and September 30, 1886. Largely through this engineering accomplishment did the U.S. Army in that year bring to a close perhaps the most fantastic chapter of American warfare.the rest of the nation and the rest of the world via almost instantaneous radio, telephone and television network.

Heliograph Peak, near Safford, for example, today is used by the Arizona Public Service Company, Mountain States Telephone and Telegraph Company, the American TV Relay Corporation and the Arizona Highway Department as a major microwave relay point.

Meanwhile, the builders of Arizona had more than enough to occupy them. In the East the government and private enterprise were working together to bring the dreams of transcontinental railroads to fruition. On March 20, 1880, what is now the Southern Pacific Railroad arrived at Tucson. In August, 1883, what is now the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad arrived at the Colorado River opposite Needles, California. When the last links were welded into these systems, the manifest destiny of the United States was realized.

This transcontinental linkage arrived at a most propitious time for Arizona. The burgeoning industrialization in the East was daily developing new uses for electricity and was thus constantly creating new demands for the indispensable metal of the Electrical Age, copper. Sources of copper closer to the industrial East were rapidly depleting their supplies of highgrade ore, and thus a new market was opening.

The remarkable Heliograph brought to a close the Indian Wars and cleared the way for the first transcontinental railroad linkage.

Neither General Miles, his men, nor anyone else in those days would have believed it if anyone had predicted that, within eighty years, the Miles heliograph system would have proved itself a prototype of a highly sophisticated Space Age communications system; but today every one of the peaks used by General Miles as heliograph relay points is a relay point in the major microwave network that ties Arizona to Up until this time silver had been king in Arizona. By the late 1880's almost every body of copper ore in the territory having any showing on the surface of the ground had been discovered. But not many had been worked extensively both because of a lack of an adequate transportation system and a lack of a sufficient market to warrant their development, at least under prevelant conditions.

During the 1880's a political controversy raged through the nation over the question of the free coinage of silver. The Democrats, with William Jennings Bryan as their spokesman, advocated the continued free coinage of silver, while the Republicans stumped for silver's demonetization.

It was this controversy, incidentally, that gave rise to a long-continuing and widely believed fallacy to the effect that Arizona was an inalterably Democrat state. During the 1880's and 1890's anyone who came to Arizona and proclaimed himself a Republican was saying, in effect, that he wanted to close the silver mines and thus to cut off Arizona's economic lifeblood.

By the time the Republicans won and silver was demonetized, in 1893, copper mining, greatly aided by the advent of the railroads, had come into its own. It surpassed in total value the combined values of silver and gold produced in Arizona and has remained the number one basic industry of the state.

Yet the engineering accomplishments that made possible this drastic shift in Arizona's economic base were largely unsung, even though they presaged one of the most important industrial revolutions this country has ever experienced. Whereas gold and silver occurred principally in rich pockets on the surface or in well-defined veins and lodes below ground, copper had a tendency to become, in many instances, widely dispersed as it went deeper. Widely dispersed throughout vast volumes of rock, the grade of the ore naturally declined. At the same time however, it was becoming clear to men of foresight that the demands for copper as a conductor of electricity were going to increase tremendously for as far in the future as men could see. Inevitably the day would come when the high-grade deposits of copper would be mined out. Thus, to meet the country's needs, the copper-mining industry would have to direct the best brains it could find toward solving the problem of diminishing ore grades vs. increasing demands.

The problem must be solved in three parts: one, the devising of new methods of mining increasing tonnages; two, the devising of new metallurgical methods of extracting economi cally smaller and smaller amounts of copper from greater and greater tonnages of ore; and, three, the designing of constantly more efficient machinery for use in the first two phases.

As early as 1886 William Church built the first copper concentrator in Arizona at Joy's Camp (now Morenci). This concentrated the copper content of the mined product to the point where it could be treated in a smelter; previously the ore had been rich enough to be smelted just as taken from the mine. Seven years later, in 1893 (the same year silver was demonetized), the first successful working of sulfide copper ores was accomplished at the Copper Queen Mine in Bisbee. In 1896, at Clifton, disseminated (or porphyry) copper ore was first treated successfully.

Ten years later Arizona's first low-grade porphyry copper ore was mined and milled on a production scale at Morenci. Less than ten years after that, the first large-scale copper Rotation plant in the United States was created at Inspiration.

These were but a few of the landmark accomplishments that rocketed Arizona to first place among the nation's nonferrous metal producing states in 1910, a position it has held continuously ever since. For the past several years it has produced more copper than all of the other fifty states combined. It has been written accurately that the story of Arizona copper mining is the story of the conversion of yesterday's worthless and waste rock into today's economically minable ore. Today Arizona's copper industry is mining land which only a few years ago was, on good authority, considered to be completely nonmineral.

Yet, despite this fantastic production, there are more known, proved, usable reserves of copper ore in the state today than at any previous time in history. This seeming paradox is simply another way of stating that the builders of Arizona's copper mining industry have wrought such miracles of technology as to convert once raw and barren wilderness into potential mines which tomorrow will sustain payrolls, pay taxes and continue to contribute to the further growth and development of Arizona.

Meanwhile, the advent of the railroads in Arizona hastened the building of the territory in many other respects. Almost immediately upon the completion of the northern and southern rail routes, the railroad companies entered into a period of violent competition which climaxed in their virtually giving away passages to anyone who expressed an interest in migrating to the West. The Federal Government participated in the program by offering means by which prospective settlers could obtain easy title to land; both the government and the railroads realized that the full potential of the West could never be exploited without people.

Census records illustrate the success of the program. The first census of Arizona, in 1864, showed a total of 4,573 white people, while that of 1890 showed 88,243. Even more important, however, is evidence of the type of people that were attracted. TV serials and Western novels to the contrary notwithstanding, Arizona during this period was not populated by twenty-six good guys and thousands of bad guys and their dance-hall girls.

That they were true builders is evidenced in a partial list of their accomplishments during the quarter century between the end of the Civil War and the beginning of the 1890's. In addition to founding many communities, developing many mines, helping to build two railroads, stocking the range with cattle and sheep, concluding the Apache Wars, conducting difficult surveys of land, founding schools and churches and feeding their families, they also were responsible for: Both Tucson and Phoenix opening their first public schools; expanding and refining the county system to facilitate local government; formation of the Territorial Stock Raisers' Association; the founding of several newspapers; the organization of companies to develop water resources; the building of a Territorial Prison, Territorial Hospital for the Insane, Territorial Normal School and the University of Arizona. Purebred Hereford cattle had been introduced to the range; the City of Phoenix had been incorporated; they had encouraged Benjamin Harrison, then a U.S. senator from Indiana, to begin what was to become a long-continued fight to bring the Grand Canyon under adequate federal protection; they saw mining laws they had evolved the hard way serve as prototypes of national laws which have served the nation so well that they still are the law of the land today.

Upon founding most new communities they built small, local lumber mills; then, in 1881, they helped Edward E. Ayer establish a lumber mill in Flagstaff which became the foundation of Arizona's now great lumber industry. And in the late 1880's they endured and survived a drought of the type that had caused the migration to other lands of the less-sophisticated prehistoric predecessors.

This drought, coming as it did at a time when the ranges were overstocked and indiscriminate cutting in the forests had further denuded watersheds, had far-reaching effects upon Arizona's future. The Colorado steamboats, the mines, the lumber mills, and any other enterprise that needed wood either for fuel or for building, up until that time simply had gone out and cut what they needed wherever they found it.

By the same token, the livestock industry had loaded the range up to and beyond its capacity, so that, as the drought continued, as one writer has put it, the God-fearing Arizonans began gathering in their churches to pray for rain. The trouble was, apparently, they prayed too hard. When the rains came, in the early 1890's, they came in torrents. The denuded mountains, foothills and valley floors were swept with floodwaters, and invaluable topsoil was washed down the waterways.

Largely as a result of this experience in Arizona and of similar ones elsewhere, there was born in the nation the great conservation move-ment. Through this, vast acreages of timber in Arizona were set aside as National Forests to be managed on the sustained-yield principle. Today in Arizona national forests, embracing a total of some 11,358,200 acres, yield not only $15 million worth of forest products annually but they also provide managed watersheds, grazing for livestock and game animals, allow for the development of mineral resources, and provide recreational facilities for millions of visitors from all over the world each year.

The Reclamation Act passed by Congress in 1902 gave the builders of Arizona one of their most important tools. Immediately fol lowing its passage, the thousands of claimants of water rights in the Salt River Valley under took to form themselves into an organization. In 1903 the Salt River Valley Water Users' Association was incorporated, and the follow ing year entered into a contract with the Federal Government for the building of Theodore Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River.

This great work remains today the highest masonry dam in the world, and it was the first of many major reclamation works to be built under the Act of 1902. Perhaps its greatest claim to fame, however, is that over the years it fulfilled its purposes as the keystone of the Salt River Project so well that it became, in 1955, the first of the works authorized under the Act of 1902 to pay off entirely all the principal and interest owed the Federal Govern ment for its construction.

Meanwhile, Arizonans have been building on other fronts. During the 1880's it was rec ognized that the dry, sunny, moderate climate offered benefits for sufferers from respiratory ailments. The desert around Tucson and Phoe nix became dotted with shacks and houses by people who came hoping to prolong their lives a few months. But many of them made such marvelous recoveries that they lived on for many years and became some of Arizona's most valuable citizens.

By 1890 the idea of the dude ranch had been borne. For a modest price, sickly people could come to visit a working ranch, eat the hearty food, breathe the clean air, and partici pate in the work of the ranch as much as their energies would allow. The idea worked; the rancher made a few dollars; and most of the dudes soon became so robust and so enthusiastic that they urged their healthier friends to follow.

Soon the fame not only of Arizona's health giving climate but of its tremendous scenic attractions spread wide and gave birth to Arizona's resort industry. In 1892 Pete Berry built the Grand View Hotel at Grand Canyon. In 1896 Arizona's oldest continuously oper ated resort, Castle Hot Springs, was estab lished, and still flourishes today. A few years later, in 1904, the Fred Harvey Company and the Santa Fe Railway built El Tovar at the Grand Canyon. These were followed in 1907 by Indian Hot Springs and by Dr. A. J. Chandler's building of one of Arizona's pioneer luxury resorts, the San Marcos Hotel, Chandler. Since that time, Arizona's builders have been hard pressed to keep pace with the ever-grow ing tourist interest in all sections of the state and in all seasons of the year.

During this same period, Arizonans began the building of a true commercial agriculture. In 1891 the first large-scale cultivation of citrus began, and at the end of that decade Dr. A. J. Chandler planted Arizona's first long staple Egyptian cotton on five acres in the Salt River Valley. In 1902 the Bureau of Plant Industry began experimental cotton farra ing in Yuma, and in 1904 the Yuma variety of cotton was developed there. Three years later the work which produced the Pima variety of corton began on the Pina Indian Reserva tion. When, on March 18, 1911, Roosevelt Dam was officially dedicated, the basis for a flourishing agricultural industry was assured.

Early in the 20th Century, Arizona took the unrelinquished lead among the nation's non-ferrous metal producing states.

The development of modern Arizona required still further basic engineering. There were, for instance, needs for still better trans portation, communications, and electric utilities. The military telegraph, which in its day was a great boon to the territory, was inadequate. Western Union wires were added, and to some extent substituted, upon completion of the rail roads; and these wires were augmented by some private and mining company lines which went into operation in the 1880's and 1890's. Because of the long distances between com munities, the advent of a highly developed telephone system was rather later in Arizona than elsewhere. But still its growth has been remarkable. Arizona's first telephone is said to have been installed in Yuna in 1878, while Samuel Lount is reported to have built and installed Phoenix's first telephone in the early 1880's to connect his home and office. The first exchange in the territory was installed in Tucson in 1881, followed a decade later by one in Phoenix. The first long-distance connections were made between Tucson and Nogales in 1903. Five years later Tucson and Phoenix were con nected, while Phoenix and Los Angeles were connected in 1930. In 1925 both Tucson and Phoenix were connected to the transcontinental open-wire long-distance line which was called the El Paso-Yuma Toll Line.

In 1951 a coaxial cable tied Phoenix and Tucson into network television, and in 1955 the first transcontinental microwave radio relay facilities were extended across Northern Ari zona. The 1960's have brought additional microwave facilities through Phoenix and Tuc son and coaxial cable through the northern part of the state.

The growth of Arizona's telephone system in the years since World War II is reflected in the fact that the state's 100,000th phone was installed in 1947. In November, 1967, the 700,000th was installed-appropriately enough - in the Arizona Pioneer's Historical Society Museum in Tucson.

Meanwhile, with the advent of radio during the late teens, Arizona engineers, both amateur and professional, saw a ready means of conquering the state's problems of great distances. By the early 1920's there were enough "ham operators" to constitute a remarkably effectual network. Right behind them came the commercially licensed stations, led by KFAD now KTAR) in Phoenix. It began operating June 21, 1922. It was the thirty-sixth licensed broadcasting station in the United States. It was followed closely by KFCB, Phoenix, now called KOY. In 1930 KTAR became associated with the NBC Network, and ΚΟΥ joined the Mutual-Don Lee Broadcasting System. Today, all major networks are represented.

Television came to Arizona December 4, 1949, when KPHO-TV, Channel 5, began operations in Phoenix. It is reported that at that time there were less than 2,000 television receivers in the whole state, and this one station was affiliated with CBS, NBC, ABC and Dumont networks. Arrival of the microwave relay system and of the coaxial cables, of course, greatly facilitated TV communications.

In the other field of mass communications, newspapers, Arizona has from its earliest days been singularly blessed. On March 3, 1859, The Weekly Arizonian published Vol. 1, No. I in Tubac. It was moved to Tucson during the Civil War, and it was joined in the field by the Arizona Miner, published at Fort Whipple on March 9, 1864. Since that time enterprising publishers have continued to set up presses and publish newspapers wherever there was a sufficient population. continued on page 44

Continued from page 1 1 a consideration of the statistical measurement of stream flow becomes extremely relevant. In the report of Simon Rifkind, Special Master, for the Supreme Court in the case of Arizona vs California et al., on pages 108, 109, 116 and 117, the stream flow measured just below Hoover Dam and at Lee Ferry (the point of division between the Upper Basin and the Lower Basin) is measured, with some of the Master's observations. From 1928 to 1958 the stream flow in acre feet, measured at Lee Ferry, has varied from a low of 6,116,000 acre feet to a high of 19,220,000 acre feet. It is doubtful that the Glen Canyon Dam, combined with the Hoover Dam, can effectively equate these extremely variable flows. The difficulties of equation arise out of contracts for power, contracts for water, satisfying existing perfected rights and a variety of other considerations which include the 4.4 million acre feet of water contemplated as a guarantee to California.

It is relevant to note too that in the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs Hearings, May 2-5, 1967, there is a footnote to the effect that the average expected flow for the Central Arizona Project by 2030 would be 658,000 acre feet. The same footnote makes the statement that the assured amount of water for any one year is half the expected amount for the same purpose. These are estimates made by the Bureau of Reclamation itself.

It is significant that the Master took cognizance of the wide variation in the amount of water that flowed annually into the Lower Basin. When there is subtracted the amount of water that is presently being used in the Upper Basin and that will be used in the foreseeable future in the Upper Basin something approximating 5 million acre feet from the amount of the stream flow measured at Lee Ferry, it becomes perfectly clear that a guarantee of 4.4 million acre feet of water for each year, taken off the top of the stream flow, could produce disastrous results for the State of Arizona. It matters little whether the guarantee is given for a period of ten years or a period of fifty years. The longer the period, the greater is the deficiency in the amount of water available for the Central Arizona Project. The evidence submitted to the Sub-committee on Irrigation and Reclamation of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, March 13, 14, 16, 17, 1967, confirm the conclusion that during many individual years there will be a shortage of water for the Central Arizona Project prior to 1990. This conclusion is arrived at by subtracting from the flow of the mainstream the present and contemplated uses of water in the Upper Basin, the perfected rights in the Lower Basin and the guarantee to California which must be honored first before waters are available for the Central Arizona Project.There are others who take a different view of the guarantee. They are prepared to brush aside as unimportant what appear to be the great risks that are revealed by a careful examination of the annual mainstream flow of the Colorado measured at Lee Ferry and the amount of water that may be at the disposal of the State of Arizona in any one year after making the deduc tions which have been enumerated previously. At any rate, it is at this stage and with this very important question, combined with what is equivalent to a moratorium in perpetuity on the granting by the Federal Power Commis sion of any licenses to the State of Arizona to construct a dam at either Marble Canyon damsite or a low dam at the Hualapai site, that the matter now rests in the Congress.

A plan for the benefit of Arizona has been developed by the Arizona Power Authority and the Interstate Stream Com mission. This is known as the Arizona Water and Power Plan. It consists of the emission of revenue bonds for the constructionof the Central Arizona Project, two hydro-electric pump stor age projects, and, initially, a small increase in consumption taxes, as a subsidy pending the issuance by the Federal Power Commission of a permit for a dam at Marble or a low dam at Hualapai, or both. Should the Federal Power Commission fail to issue licenses for either Marble or low Hualapai dam, the revenues from this small increase in consumption taxes will grow as the state continues to grow. This plan, excepting for the increase in taxes, was endorsed by the Arizona Legislature. One of the most competent engineering firms in the country has been retained for several years by the Arizona Power Authority. It estimates that with a low dam at Hualapai and a dam at Marble Canyon - neither of which whittles away at or impairs either the Grand Canyon National Park or the National Monument - the Arizona Plan will, after the revenue bonds have been extinguished, produce approximately 45 to 50 million dollars in net revenue annually for disposal by the Arizona Legislature.

But, three of the five members of the Congressional dele gation or their representatives, when they heard of the proposed action by the Arizona Legislature to impose the small con sumption taxes flew posthaste, in mid-February, to Arizona to plead that action by the State would damage their efforts to persuade the Congress to authorize a Federal Reclamation project which would consist of a Central Arizona Canal and a substantial subsidy to a thermo-electric generating plant in the northern part of the State. This plan, however, would not produce surplus electric revenues to help pay the cost of the Central Arizona Canal. The Federal taxpayer will foot a large part of this bill. This is, among others, a very important consideration that all of Arizona should weigh carefully. Under ordinary Con gressional procedure a bill authorizing an expenditure is a necessary preamble to an actual appropriation of funds. Con gress ordinarily, therefore, must act twice before any project can be taken as a certainty. In this case, even though the Con gress should authorize a Central Arizona Project without disabling provisions such as a guarantee to California of 4.4 million acre feet of water an eventuality which seems quite unlikely when viewed against the backdrop of past history and California's use of 800,000 to 900,000 acre feet of water in excess of the amount apportioned to her Arizona must con tinue, to wait possibly many years until the Congress actually appropriates the necessary funds for the construction of the Central Arizona al Arizona Project. The magnitude of the present budget of the federal government and its large deficit naturally raise serious questions as to when, if ever, Congress will appro priate the required sums to initiate and complete the project.In order to protect the State of Arizona from this peril and others and in order to lift the tax burden off the back of the Federal taxpayers, it is to be hoped that the Arizona Congres sional delegation will succeed in insinuating into the present bill under consideration a proviso that nothing in the language of the bill will be interpreted to be or invoked as an impedi ment to the emission of licenses for either a low dam at the Hualapai site or a dam at the Marble Canyon site, or both, by the Federal Power Commission and the completion of the Arizona Water and Power Plan. Without this safeguard ard Federal authorization will effectively pre-empt a Federal project as against a State project. Meanwhile, time runs constantly against Arizona. The water supply continues to decline. The future growth of the state may become problematical possibly retarded so long as clouds continue to cast deep shadows over the adequacy of Arizona's future sources of water.At the time this goes to press, Arizona is confronted once more with her ancient problem.

Interest at 4% was to be charged against the cost of the dam excepting that portion which was allocated to flood control. No interest was to be charged against the cost of the All-American Canal.

In 1923, the author, together with Sen. Harold Elliott of Greenlee County, drafted the first Articles of Incorporation for a state-owned Arizona Power Authority. At their expense they proceeded to Washington to determine what attitude the Federal Power Commission, of which Secretary of War Weeks was the Chairman, would take in regard to any application for such a state-owned authority. The proposal was not received with any particular enthusiasm.

U. S. Supreme Court decision, June 3, 1963, Arizona v. California. Dissenting opinions held that the laws of the states were to be applicable regarding the entities which were to be the ultimate consumers -not the authority of the Secretary of the Interior.

In the Colorado River Association News Letter for February 1968, published in Los Angeles, there is the following language: Probability that there will not be enough water in the river to meet increased demands from new projects is fundamental. The ten million Southern Californians who depend upon the river for 80% of their current needs argue that they already have made a sacrifice of water rights. In order to effect the Colorado Compact,California years ago limited its rights. California has contracts with Federal authorities to take 5.3 million acre-feet and now diverts about 5.1 million acre-feet to meet its annual needs.

Should new works be built on the river to serve other states, California points out that 700,000 acre-feet a year which is used now will be denied California by the cut from 5.1 to 4.4, a loss which would half-dry the aqueduct on which they spent $500 million. In years when the flow of the Colorado River is below average, the aqueduct could go completely dry unless protection is given California's prior right to take 4.4 million acre-feet before newcomers impose their demands on a short river.

This is a simplification of what the Court decided. Except for a few modifications which might arise out of unforeseeable developments, such as a drought period, this is the substance of the decree.

They make no distinction between a low dam at the Hualapai (Bridge) site and a high dam.

The author was for several years a member of the Weather Modification Committee established by the Federal Government.

The author knows of at least one substantiated industry which would have come to Arizona had a water supply of good quality been assured.

Part III THE DEVELOPMENTS ON THE RIVER IN THE LOWER BASIN

Before the white man came to the Southwest there were doubtless primitive irrigation systems along the course of the Colorado below Black Canyon where Indian tribes had settled along the narrow but fertile valley. It is quite likely that the Yuma (including the Quecham Indians) and the Colorado Indians had developed very simple diversionary works to take the waters from the Colorado on to the lands of the river bottom which they were cultivating. Certainly it is known that the Pima Indians had developed quite a sophisticated system of irrigation along the Gila in the vicinity of the Casa Grande Ruins.

Among the first white people to use water from the Colo-rado for the cultivation and growth of crops were those who had located in the vicinity of Yuma and who irrigated a small acreage on the lower elevations below the mesa.

Ft. Yuma was established in the middle of the last century. Steamboats of shallow draft navigated the river as far as Yuma in 1851 and made their interrupted voyage upstream as far as Ehrenberg. Thomas H. Blythe, for whom the town of Blythe is named, moved to the Palo Verde Valley along the Colorado River in 1856 and was one of the first recorded users of Colo-rado River water for irrigation purposes. The Federal Govern-ment first attempted to reclaim lands on the Colorado River Indian Reservation in 1867.

At some time during the latter part of the last century and the early part of the twentieth century, settlers came into the Imperial Valley in California. They constructed, in 1902, diversionary works on the Colorado and a canal which transported waters from the Colorado largely through Mexico and back into the United States to irrigate the lands which they were then cultivating. It was while these diversionary works were being repaired and a temporary diversion facility had been constructed upstream that a flash flood on the Gila not the Colorado tore through the alternative diversion break in the banks of the Colorado and caused the whole stream thereafter to flow into the Imperial Valley and to create the Salton Sea. It was not, it should be noted, a flood from the Colorado which initially broke through the main banks of the river.

The flow of the Colorado into the Imperial Valley and the Salton Sea, which was below sea level, was finally brought under control by the action of the Southern Pacific Railroad and the heroic measures which it took to prevent the river from continuing on its destructive course and to return it to its normal channel. It was this flood which gave rise generally to the great demand for flood control on the Colorado.

The prejudices against the privately owned public utilities caused by the misbehavior of some of them created a political climate favorable to federal legislation. Moreover, the pressures for controlling the floodwaters of the Colorado, which had been generated and aggravated by the experience which formed the Salton Sea, combined with the ever-increasing demand for water on the coastal plains of California, and what was then considered to be a project larger than any one state could undertake, gathered support like a snowball for the passage of the Boulder Canyon Project Act to achieve the four purposes of:

"Those who have seen this expanse, like the author, almost unanimously believe that its beauties have been immeasurably enhanced by damming the waters of the river to form Lake Powell . . ."

It also authorized the construction of the All-American Canal to transport waters into the Imperial and Coachella Val leys, respectively. The diversion works on the mainstream that were to direct the waters into the All-American Canal were to be either the Laguna Dam or some alternative diversionary works which would, subject to the judgment of the Secretary of the Interior, "the better to serve the purposes for which the legisla tion was enacted." The Imperial Dam was, accordingly, subse quently constructed. The waters diverted by it were transported by the All-American Canal into the Imperial and Coachella Valleys in California and were also dropped through the siphon which had existed in connection with the Yuma Project to service the perfected rights in and around Yuma on the Arizona side of the river.

Later there was constructed on the river the Parker Dam and the Davis Dam. Both are operated by the Federal Govern ment as the Parker-Davis Project. There is installed capacity to generate 120,000 kilowatts at Parker and 225,000 kilo watts of hydroelectric energy at Davis. Half the power gen erated at the Parker Dam, that is to say about 60,000 kilowatts, is absorbed by the Metropolitan Water District for the purpose of pumping waters over the coastal range, thence to flow by gravity to the areas around Los Angeles and San Diego. The other half of the power generated at the Parker Dam is absorbed into the Reclamation Service power grid. The cost of the Parker Dam and the Metropolitan Water District Canal with its ancillary facilities was defrayed by the emission of bonds secured by the organized Metropolitan Water District of California.

Davis Dam, which is a part of the Parker-Davis Project, was originally installed further to regulate the waters of the Colorado to satisfy the provisions of the Mexican treaty of February 3, 1944In addition to the hydroelectric power which was generated and the additional regulation which it provided, Davis Dam created a lovely and attractive recreation area and caused the formation of Lake Mobave.

Parker Dam also created Lake Havasu, which is similarly used for recreational purposes and is adjacent to the Havasu development. Both these areas attract many thousands of people each year, where they may boat and swim and fish and enjoy all the water sports.

After the Boulder Canyon Project Act there was also con structed the Headgate Rock Dam. This dam generates no power, but it services the Colorado Indian Reservation in California.

Below the Headgate Rock Dam and upstream from the Imperial Dam, there is the Palo Verde Dam, which is the diver sion facility that services the Palo Verde irrigation dismict around Blythe on the California side of the river.

Below Yuma there is the Morales Dam, which was built by Mexico, to give effect to one of the provisions of the Mexi can treaty.

On the California side of the river there is a small pump storage project into which waters released from Lake Mead surplus to immediate needs, are pumped and from which weter is released in order to meet the varying day-to-day demands upon the river at Imperial Dam. This is called the Senetor Wash Dam and generates a small amount of power.

Similarly, an insignificant amount of power is generated along the All-American Canal and elsewhere in other facilities, But the amount of power is so unimportant that it is not worth mentioning.

The waters that are reserved under the Supreme Court decision for the Chemehuevi Indian Reservation are relatively small in amount. The lands have seldom, if ever, been irigated. They are situated in California berween Parker Dam and the Fort Mobave Indian Reservation.

The waters that are reserved for the benefit of the Fort Mohave Indian Reservation are substantial in amount, though no litigation to speak of has ever been undertaken on this por tion of the public lands reserved for the Ft. Mohave Indians. The Reservation is situated in the three states in the area where the southwestern Nevada boundary intersects the Colorado River.

The Yuma Indian Reservation is situated in California although it includes the "Yuma Homesteads" irrigated under the Yuma Project in Arizona. The facilities in the vicinity of Yuma - the Imperial Dam and the Laguna Dam service this reservation.

The largest reservation of Indian rights to be satisfied under the provisions of the Supreme Court decision applies to the Colorado River Indian Reservation. The Headgate Rock Dam services this particular irrigable portion of the bottomlands of the Colorado River and is located largely on the Arizona side of the river.

The Cocopah Indian Reservation is situated in Arizona, southwest of Yuma. The amount of water which it requires and which has been reserved for use on its land is an important.

The Imperial Dam, in addition to diverting waters for the Imperial and Coachella Valleys and the such older Yuma Project, is also used as a diversion facility to supply waters for the Gila Project, which includes the Yuma-Mesa Project, the Wellton-Mohawk Project and the North and South Gila Valley Projects. These are the only areas for which facilities have been made available along the Colorado River for the benefit of Arizona, either by the Federal Government or by the Arizona Legislature.

To sum up the way in which the 2.8 million acre feet of water apportioned to Arizona for consumptive use by the Supreme Court are to be distributed, the following table will be illuminating:

There is, pending in Congress legislation which would authorize the Central Arizona Project. This legislation has passed in the Senate and is in the House, where it has been referred to the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. A sub-committee has marked up a bill for consideration by the full committee. It authorizes the Central Arizons Project and includes, for an unspecified period of time, a 4.4 million acre foot annual guarantee to California. It also authorizes a thermal plant, partly owned by the Federal Government, near Page and charges such waters as may be used in the plant against the apportionment of waters to Arizona. It contains many other provisions which seem to be inimical to the interests of this state, including, among others, language which can be inter preted to be a perpetual prohibition against the construction of any dam on the Colorado within the boundaries of the State of Arizona which otherwise might be licensed by the Federal Power Commission.

Arizona has a contract with the Secretary of the Interior for 2.8 million acre feet of water from the mainstream from which present perfected rights and rights in Arizona reserved under the Supreme Court decision are to be satisfied. The project referred to in the previous paragraph is designed to enable Arizona to apply to beneficial use in the central plains of the state the bal ance of the water which has been apportioned to her under the Supreme Court decision. Whether the various provisions of this legislation presently pending before the Full Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs will actually provide Arizona after the satisfaction of all perfected rights, the guarantee to California and other adverse provisions of the Act with an adequate water supply is a very debatable question. A careful and objective analysis by competent hydrologists suggests that for many specific years prior to 1990 there will be a significant deficiency of water for the Central Arizona Project after, of course, the guarantee to California of 4.4 million acre feet has been satisfied, present perfected rights have been honored and Upper Basin projects developed.

The Arizona plan which has been discussed in Section II of this article, since it is part of the controversy over the Colo rado, is a possible alternative in the event the Congress fails to enact satisfactory legislation which will provide Arizona with an adequate supply of water to resolve at least a substantial part of her water problem.

Work on the Arizona Plan, although it has been meticu lously engineered and carefully prepared, has not as yet been commenced. And besides, although the Secretary of the Interior has granted a contract for 2.8 million acre feet of water, he has refrained from granting to Arizona any finite easement across the public domain and has not designated a specific point of diversion on the mainstream of the Colorado. Except for a small increase in the consumption taxes necessary to subsidize the waters, the plan was approved by the State Legislature in 1967. A more complete summary of the plan, combined with the objections to it voiced by certain members of the Arizona Congressional delegation, is contained in the second part of this article.

This is a brief resume of the developments which have taken place in the lower basin and of those that are contemplated, either pursuant to federal legislation or, failing a satisfactory federal project, pursuant to the Arizona plan. Glen Canyon Dam and Lake Powell are within the upper basin states.

It is interesting to record that in the early twenties an appli cation for the construction of a hydroelectric dam at Diamond Creek was submitted to the Federal Power Commission by certain individuals, for whom James G. Gizand was the engineer. This application was never approved by the Federal Power Commission and the dam was never built.

During the 20's and the early 30's, when the debate was at white heat about the propriety of ratifying the Colorado River Compact and when legislation in Congress for the benefit of California was being argued, one of the issues was public power vs. private power. This issue was particularly persuasive because of the doubtful actions taken by the management of certain private power interests. Today, however, the issue is not one of private power us. public power; the issue in respect of the Ari zona plan is one of state public power us. federal public power.

To those in Arizona this issue should be particularly impor tant and should be reviewed with particular care. The Arizona Power Authority and the Interstate Stream Commission are creatures of the state of Arizona and subject to the will of the people of this state. The Bureau of Reclamation is beyond the reach of the Arizona Legislature and the citizens of this state. Against it the state has no recourse; from its decisions the state has no appeal except to the halls of Congress, where Arizona's five electoral votes are vastly outnumbered by California's massive votes.

These fundamental differences between a state project, difficult as it may be, and a federal project, which at the time this goes to press, appears to be most unlikely, should be meticulously examined by the people of this state, for the first is subject to their will and the second is far beyond any controls which they may wish to establish. It is, of course, acknowledged that the Arizona Water and Power Plan must be operated in coordination with the Federal projects on the Colorado.

By May of this year, or by the time this article sees the light of day, there should be more clearly silhouetted the probable actions that Congress may take or fail to take in regard to the Central Arizona Project. It is not beyond the realms of possibil ity that there will be enacted legislation for the alleged benefit of the State of Arizona containing fast infirmities and which certain members of the Arizona Congressional delegation may herald and acclaim as a great victory. But if any legislation contains the 4.4 million acre feet guarantee to California and other infirmities including what is tantamount to a mora torium forever on the emission of licenses to the Arizona Power Authority in areas which will not damage or impair the majestic beauties of the Grand Canyon National Park or the National Monument then it may, upon careful analysis of stream flows, turn into a Pyrrhic victory of what appears at first blush to be a successful conclusion of a controversy which has stretched over almost half a century.

Should this, unhappily, be the situation which the people of this State then face, they should consider objectively the Arizona Water and Power Plan which has been so carefully worked out and which can be financed without hypothecating the general credit of the State.

It is, accordingly, imperative that if the people of this State are to enjoy an option for an infirm and inadequate bit of Federal legislation, there be included in any Federal bill lan guage which does not prohibit implicitly or otherwise the Federal Power Commission from emitting licenses to the Arizona Power Authority for a low dam at Hualapai, a dam at the Marble Canyon damsite, or both, and for the construction of the Arizona Water and Power Plan.

The future of the State depends in large measure on how this great issue is to be resolved. This may be our last, best chance.

The new peoples from other states... the fast growing network of superb interurban highways... the constant surge of cosmopolitanism. These are the principal forces establishing a new quality of permanence to the always marvelous, ever changing, incomplete desert.

WILDERNESS TO WONDERLAND from page 37

In the field of transportation, however, Arizona has not always been so fortunate. The advent of the Colorado steamboats marked one great step forward. An even greater step was the arrival of the railroads and transcontinental wagon roads, which obviated the need to ship goods all the way around the Horn. But at that point progress in ground transportation slowed almost to a standstill. Branch railroads, of course, tied together the principal population centers; but access to outlying communities still was limited to horseback or buckboard over rough and rutted, almost nonexistent roads. By 1929 Arizona had only 281 miles of hard-surfaced roads, most of these in the metropolitan areas. To anyone who has traveled around Arizona the reasons for this lag in ground transportation are obvious. The difficulties of building highways through the mountains, where cuts some times must be made through rock of extreme hardness and where grades are sometimes almost unmanageably steep, are great enough. But even greater - much to some people's surprise, are the difficulties of building highways across the desert. Here shifting sands and flash floods make the highway engineer's life a nightmare.Highway building in Arizona always has been and still is an extremely difficult and expensive process. Couple with that the great distances to be traversed and the exceptionally small population available to pay the costs, and it becomes easy to understand why Arizona's highways for so long lagged behind the rest of the nation. To the relatively oldtimer it still seems a miracle that Arizona has been able to build some 5,000 miles of state and U. S. highways and another 30,000 miles of improved county roads.

Daily a splendid system of superhighways is being extended throughout the state, and in the very near future the builders of Arizona highways will have to take a back seat to no one. The same factors of distance and expense that hinders the development of Arizona's ground transportation facilities and which encouraged the development of early radio stimulated air transportation. One of the first evidences of Arizona's interest in aviation was shown in February, 1910, when three aviators who had attended the first international meeting of flyers to be held on American soil in Los Angeles visited Arizona on a barnstorming tour. They flew into Phoenix, where thousands of awe-stricken Arizonans turned out to see them. Tucson very quickly arranged to have one of them appear there. The following year Robert G. Fowler broke the world's sustained flight record by flying the 165 miles from Yuma to Maricopa non-stop in 206 minutes. The same year Cal T. Rogers, in an effort to establish a transcontinental flight record, reached Tucson twenty-seven days after he had left New York.

While Arizonans had distinguished them selves in the nation's defense during the Spanish American War and World War I, Arizona itself was destined to play a major role in the nation's service during World War II. This was the first war in which air power was a dominant factor. The United States faced the extremely difficult problem of converting hundreds of thousands of untrained civilians into capable aviators, navigators, and ground crews and, to compensate for the nation's serious lack of preparedness, this conversion had to be made almost overnight.

To work such a miracle, the trainees had to have a maximum of flying time in a minimum of elapsed time. Arizona's climate and topography made it an ideal locale for such a program. Williams and Luke Air Force Base, which had been established prior to the outbreak of war, were immediately brought into advanced opera tions, and Davis-Monthan Army Air Force Base was established at Tucson. Litchfield Naval Air Facility, Thunderbird Fields Nos. 7 and 8, Falcon Field and Marana Air Base were among the better known training facilities. Douglas, Winslow and Kingman all had large Air Force installations, and many smaller com munities were the sites of primary training facili ties; the face of the desert was striped with scores of emergency and practice air strips.Hundreds of thousands of young men received their military training here, and a great many fell in love with the state. They vowed they would come back after the war and make their homes here, which was in large degree responsible for the tremendous postwar boom in Arizona's population.

An even more important factor in that boom, however, was the fact that the war experience proved to be the base upon which Arizona's spectacular subsequent growth has been built. It took a few years to sort out all the factors, but the leaders who comprise the important development agencies of the state soon had the story well in hand, and major industry across the country listened attentively.

Prominent among the factors discussed and proved for the attraction of new industry was the fact that industrial housekeeping is much easier here than in the regions of high humidity and air pollution. Again, equivalent plant facil ities can be built for much less here than in most other parts of the country; basements are not required, heavy-duty heating plants are eliminated, and the availability of sufficient land at reasonable prices has made possible the building of the garden-type plants in which people enjoy working. To back up these facts the modern builders of Arizona pointed to the open-air thermal electric generating plants Ari zona has been able to substitute for the enclosed facilities required in other states.

But still the most important factor has been the fact that people from every section of the country have wanted to live and work in Ari zona. Thus, when the first prospective new industries asked about Arizona's available labor force, Arizona leaders could reply that virtually the whole labor force of the entire country was available. For every job opening created there were dozens of qualified people elsewhere very anxious for the opportunity to come here.

The result has been the burgeoning of industry and population that has kept Arizona in the forefront of the nation's most rapidly growing states. Arizona - specifically, the Salt River Valley, Tucson and Ft. Huachuca - has become one of the country's most important electronics centers. Transportation costs are but a minor portion of the total costs of such manu factured products as electronics components, and this fact has more than compensated for Arizona's distance from the highly industrialized East and Middle West; but, as the nation's industry continues to decentralize, transporta tion will become an even more significant factor in the entire Southwest.

More than 76 golf courses, from low desert level to 7,000 ft. northlands Such spectacular growth, however, has not been without its attendant problems. Every Increase in population creates new demands for educational facilities, streets, highways, utilities, and such governmental services as police and fire protection at the state, county and local levels. It's the same old problem Arizona has faced from its beginnings, that of a huge land area still populated by only a relatively small number of people. Fortunately Arizona's traditional economic base of mining, agriculture, livestock, timber, tourism and health was solidly enough built to prevent the new demands from being impossible of fulfillment. Vastly improved farming methods and equipment plus plant hybridization, for instance, have enabled Arizona farmers to main tain a constant increase in production despite the fact that lack of water has not only pre vented any increase in farm acreage but actually has resulted in an appreciable acreage decrease.

Enlightened management of such utilities as Arizona Public Service, Tucson Gas & Electric, the Salt River Project and El Paso Natural Gas has obviated any shortage of utility services in their fields, while managerial acumen and tech nological advancement have enabled the Moun tain States Telephone & Telegraph Company to keep pace with one of the most challenging and rapid growths ever faced by any segment of the Bell System.

Similarly, Arizona's livestock industry has grown steadily by means of constant improve ment in breeding practices and range manage ment. The forest industries have cooperated enthusiastically with the U. S. Forest Service in the sustained yield concept of forest man agement so as to insure the perpetual cropping of Arizona's woodlands. In more recent years technological advances have made it possible for the industry to use previously unused forest products for the manufacture of paper. And cooperation among all of the interests using forest lands has greatly improved the quality of both the grazing land and the watersheds. Perhaps the most significant growth of Ari zona's economic base has occurred in the mining industry. A combination of scientific research, exogenous capital investment and managerial ability has enabled this industry to convert formerly new and nonproductive wilderness into tax-paying, payroll-supporting and merchandise buying mines. The operation of these mines is vastly important not only to the economy of Arizona but to the maintenance of the country's industrial prosperity and military might.

All of those traditional economic interests in Arizona, then, have teamed with the relative newcomers not only in supplying the state with a singularly stable economic base but also in providing for present improvements and pos sible future needs. For instance, when the electronics industry first was seriously consider ing moving to the state, one of its principal concerns after the availability of labor was the existence of an adequate system of higher edu cation. This sophisticated industry must have outstanding universities not only so that it can draw competent employees from them but also so that it can send in more promising people on for further training.

Arizona already had laid a fine foundation of the University of Arizona and two state colleges. In the last few years, the two state colleges have matured into full-fledged uni versities, and all three institutions have grown remarkably in both size and academic excel lence. Nor have these expansions been exclu sively in the technical areas. There has been as much emphasis in the liberal arts and human ities as in engineering and business administra tion, while a sound system of junior colleges has been built to augment the three universities.

Probably the most pressing problem faced by the builders of Arizona today is water. It is as old as the land itself and is clearly defined in a reconstruction of the migrations of the prehistoric peoples. They were plagued alter nately by prolonged droughts and by floods. But the most urgent water problem is that of the receding underground water table. The Hohokams were beset by groundwater seeping up into their pit houses and ground-surface houses, and the builders of Phoenix about the beginning of this century similarly found water so close to the surface that it was difficult to dig a hole that would support a fence post in areas along North Central Avenue in Phoenix. Today the underground water table has dropped as much as 250 and more feet. This This is compelling testimony of the fact that Arizona has been overdrawing its underground water account very seriously for the last half century. In many places the water table has fallen so low that it is no longer economically possible to pump water for agricultural purposes, and as a consequence some 200,000 acres of land have gone out of cultivation.

The problem, however, is not one of con cern just to the farmer. It concerns every present citizen of the state and every prospective new industry and resident. It is axiomatic that no civilization can endure without assured supplies of adequate water. The Salt River Project has done a magnificent job of capturing, storing and distributing water within its area, and it makes constant progress in improving the yields of its watersheds and preventing losses by seep age, evaporation and waste. Yet it is not enough.

That Arizona's growth will continue seems a certainty. People from all over will continue to want to live here, attracted not only by the salubrious and health-giving climate but by many other factors. The far-growing network of superb highways brings within easy access of every community every climate-life zone in the world with the exception of the wet tropical. The state's amazing variety of outdoor pleasures and scenic wonders today is supplemented by a constant increase of cosmopolitanism, which is reflected in the growing number of institutions interested in the arts and sciences.

Arizona's home builders have pioneered in construction methods which make it possible today to buy more house for the dollar in Ari zona than can be had someplace else in the world. And the steady influx of an increasing variety of industry and business creates employment opportunities in every category, from semi skilled to every type of scientific research.

Thus the engineers of Arizona, using the term in the sense in which it was defined early in this article, are still at work. They still are tackling with daring, imagination and vigor the physical problems of the state. But they are also bringing those same qualities to bear in the field of human engineering to capitalize still further on Arizona's tremendous natural assets and make it constantly a better place in which to live and work.

The Great Auto Race... ARIZONA'S SALUBRIOUS CLIMATE AND FAVORABLE GEOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS STILL ENCOURAGE RECORD SETTING GREAT RACES.

Internationally known drivers and racing car builders compete over the Phoenix International Raceway's natural desert landscaped "gran prix" course.

The difficulties of building Arizona's highways is astounding to many people. Today modern, straight, high-speed roads are spanning ever more of the state's vast area and making automobile travel constantly more pleasurable.

But it was not always so. Padre Kino blazed a trail between Sonoita, Sonora, in Mexico, and the junction of the Gila and Colorado rivers. Despite the sanctity of its initial explorer, however, the route won the well-deserved name of El Camino del Diablo. Part of it was used by de Anza on his expedition to found San Francisco, but its waterless one hundred and thirtyfive miles made it less than safe and popular.

During the years 1849 to 1852, when gold in California was the irresistible lure to the West, it came into much wider usage. Then, abruptly, it was abandoned, for the gold fever had cooled and men were more inclined to heed the warnings of cooler and more experienced heads. In 1857 the Boundary Commission reported that a reliable count placed the number of people who had died of thirst and exposure on The Devil's Highway during the years 1849-1852 at more than 400! Half a century later, with the advent of the automobile, there still was no safe and reliable route to traverse the searing Mohave Desert. Wagon trains had been making it, as had prospectors afoot and on horse or burro back; but the horseless carriage? In 1911 auto enthusiasts put their new-fangled vehicles to the extreme test.

In the fall of that year national attention focused on the great auto race from Los Angeles to Phoenix, and a more exciting sports story is hard to imagine. Competing for cash prizes posted by businessmen in towns along the course were sixteen cars, drivers and "mechanicians." A contemporary account says the race was difficult not only because of "the long distance" but also because "the route includes everything from the paved streets of Los Angeles to the blind, dusty, sandy desert stretches where each driver must depend on his head, his hands and the machine under him to carry him through safely."

The Arizona Telephone & Telegraph Company furnished bulletins all along the course, and these show the sort of problems encountered. For instance, the Maxwell turned over twice; the E.M.F. slipped while boarding the ferry over the Gila and fell into "33% feet of water;" both Buicks got into trouble; the Cadillac turned over out of Santa Ana; the big Pope Hartford hit a curbstone and smashed both front wheels and knocked off the front axle; and the Stoddard-Dayton stripped her gears, bent her front axle and damaged her engine.

A National, driven by Harvey Herrick, harvested most of the prizes, being first into El Centro, Yuma and Phoenix. His elapsed time was 20 hours and 23 minutes.

Two heroes emerged from the race. One was Roger Stearns, driver of the Stoddard-Dayton. According to the Yuma Examiner's report, "Speeding over the road from San Diego to Yuma at a mile-a-minute clip, he [Stearns] found the Maxwell car overturned and Smith [its driver] and his mechanician pinned underneath." Stearns stopped and rescued the men and thus sacrificed his chances of winning the $900 prize for the first to reach Yuma.

The other hero was Charley Illingworth, “mechanician” for the Lexington car. While cranking the car near Ehrenberg, his right wrist was badly fractured by a “kick-back.” Blood poisoning set in, and shortly thereafter Illingworth's right hand had to be amputated to arrest the spread of the deadly infection.

The following year a group of San Diego businessmen banded together and determined to build a permanent automobile road between their city and Yuma. They bought thirtysix carloads of thick twelve-inch planks and had them laid in two parallel lines across the desert, with cross boards to hold them in place. The road was built in short sections, so that the motorist who found his way blocked by drifting sand could get out and pull the sections out of the sand and relocate them. It was a fine idea, but it didn't work.

A few years later the California State Highway Commission tried to improve on this idea by building a similar road out of railroad ties eight feet long. These made a fine, smooth surface, but the sand continued to drift and block the road.

It was not until a civil engineer, E. Q. Sullivan, engaged by the Commission, made a scientific study of the movement of sand dunes that a final breakthrough was attained. Sullivan evolved a method of stabilizing the dunes and thus providing a permanent roadbed. That road was opened February 28, 1925, and has never been closed by drifts since. (That is not to say, however, that the sand doesn't still blow on occasion.) Meanwhile, businessmen to the north were struggling to solve their highway building problems. Starting in 1910, such As Arizonans as Julius W. Becker were working actively with the

OUR CULTURAL HERITAGE AND ARIZONA HIGHWAYS

The Arizona highway salvage project is the result of Arizona's determination to save its cultural heritage while expanding its highway facilities. The program, conducted by the Arizona State Museum, The University of Northern Arizona, and the University of Arizona, through contract agreements with the Arizona Highway Department, makes it possible to salvage and preserve for future generations the prehistoric and early cultural records man left behind him in locations where modern transportation requirements demand that a new highway be built.

American Automobile Association, the Daughters of the American Revolution and other trail blazer groups to open up a transcontinental highway system.

A. L. Westgard, a pioneer driver for the AAA, drove his appropriately named Pathfinder car from Santa Fe to Albu querque along what is now U. S. 66, thence south to Grants, west to Springerville, to Whiteriver, to Globe, to Phoenix and finally via Yuma to Los Angeles. A couple of years later he made another trip in a Saurer truck, carrying 3 x 12 planks, 16 feet long, and ample amounts of heavy canvas.

The first Ocean-to-Ocean Highway Convention in the country was held in Springerville, Arizona, about 1913, and resulted in the formation of the National Trails Highway, of which, some years later, Judge Harry S. Truman of Kansas City became national president and Becker vice president.

The success of these early efforts is evidenced in the fact that today transcontinental highways U. S. 60, 66 and 666 cross Northern Arizona, while the rest of the state is opened up to international traffic by U. S. 70, 80, 89, 93 and a growing web of interstate highways. But the efforts were neither easy nor cheap.

It has been reported by the Apache County IndependentNews that between 1913 and 1940 the Beckers alone spent some $125,000 to help defray traveling expenses, donations and other costs to get a reliable highway system built for Northern Arizona.

Of such stuff have the pioneer builders of Arizona roads been made. Their mark in history is indelible.

A new sight on Arizona's highways. Specially designed helium tank trucks will transport 125,000 cubic feet of helium, priced at $35 per 1,000 cu ft., from Arizona Helium Corporation's extraction facility at Navajo, Arizona. The deposits in the Four Corners area are the richest known concentrations of the gas in the free world.

DESERT

Uninhabited; waste; untilled; destitute of moisture and vegetation) dictionary. Perhaps, Webster, in your time. But I have seen the thirsty land drinking.

Dams, canals, laterals, ditches. Harmonizing the Creator and Creature in one gigantic gesture of inspiration, planning, work.

And the desert progressed for man's expansion, its (once insatiable) thirst slaked; blossoming with foodstuffs for kitchen, with jewel facet beauty for the soul, and with its own satisfaction of accomplishment cupped in the hand of God.

- V. Trollope-Cameron

SPRING NOCTURNE

Night in summer is a gypsy following a moon-trail to possess a dream Night in autumn is a woman rich from the labour of fulfillment, or a man with the harvest behind him Night in winter bites deep at the heels of the flesh, bringing the mind to the shelter of hearth and books But night in spring is music of creation singing in fresh turned soil and echoing from galaxies unborn!

- Lorraine Babbitt

THE SEARCH

An old prospector, a desert rat, his hair a faded gray, Talked himself a grubstake and started once more on his way.

Fifty odd years of walking over miles of desert road Hunting, forever hunting, in search for the Mother Lode.

Climbing up in the mountains, panning each little stream Hoping to find a pocket, rarely getting a gleam.

With his patient little burro (it too was a grizzled gray) They plodded along the ups and downs, the same old thing every day.

The old man and his burro, each a part of the other's soul Led a life of peace and contentment that could never be measured with gold.

- Hinton H. Noland

YOURS SINCERELY RAIL X NOT IN GUEST RANCH BUSINESS:

Your recent issue on Santa Cruz County was a joy and delight to all of us who love this part of the state. It is, however, giving us here at the Rail X a vastly increased and somewhat burdensome number of inquiries and visitors.

The Rail X has not been a guest ranch since my husband and I bought it at the beginning of 1966, except for our allowing the former owners to complete their season that spring. Undoubtedly your photographs and information had been secured before then at least we were not consulted about their use.

While the February issue does not specifically label the ranch as a guest ranch, the placing of one photograph in particular does imply that it is, and it seems that a great many of your readers have assumed that it was.

Mrs. Raymond A. Rich Rail X Ranch Patagonia, Arizona

Just received my copy of ARIZONA HIGHWAYS Treasury of Arizona's Colorful Indians. Your publication has, indeed, captured the true American Indians and their cultures.

Many photographs are worthy of eventually doing them as oil paintings. Have always been truly interested in our American Indians my favorite subject. Your book has surpassed all my expectations it has so beautifully portrayed our Indians that words are inadequate. Thank you for such a wonderful edition.

Mrs. Mildred M. Rinck Naples, Florida

HAPPY ARIZONA VISIT:

Beside me, I have the November, 1967, issue of ARIZONA HIGHWAYS. It is indescribably beautiful and the familiar scenes tug at my heart strings. No, I am not an Arizonan, not even an American. I am an Aussie who, with my husband, visited your state in November of last year.

Our time in the United States was of necessity limited, having already been to England, and our two sons, aged eleven and eight years, were in the care of my folks here in Australia. May I explain as briefly as possible (please bear with me!) how we came to choose Arizona in which to spend our few short remaining weeks, thus having to pass over many other places of interest in the United States. We flew directly from London to Tucson, non-stop, so as to have as much time amongst the Arizonans as possible. (Sorry, touchdown in New York!) Four years ago, I became interested in cactus growing, purely as a hobby and whilst doing so, came into contact with various pieces of literature on Arizona. As my interest in cactus collecting grew, even more so did the desire to see Arizona and meet its people. At this stage it was a rather remote chance, but something wonderful to think about, anyway! I read all I could lay my hands on about Arizona, its people, cities, small towns, industries the lot and came to the conclusion that I would love the place without even having set eyes on it. When, in November of last year, my dreams of seeing Arizona materialized and I stepped from the plane onto Arizona soil, I knew at once that the conclusion I had come to, so long before, had been right. My husband and I covered as much of Arizona by car as possible. To sum up, I love your wonderful state of Arizona and its people. So much so that we have every intention of returning with our two sons, as soon as possible, as I know there is so much more to be seen and we want our sons to share this experience with us.

The people of your state can surely be proud to say, "I'm an Arizonan" just as I am proud to say, "I've been to Arizona and it is the most beautiful place I have ever seen."

Mrs. Peter Hopkinson Wauschope, N.S.W. Australia

OPPOSITE PAGE

"MIGHTY HOOVER DAM PLUGS A MIGHTY RIVER" BY HERB McLAUGHLIN. The completion of Hoover Dam (dedicated in 1935) marked the modern builders' first effective effort to tame the wild and unruly Colorado River. Behind the 726.4 feet high dam is Lake Mead, named for Dr. Elwood Mead, Commissioner of Reclamation from 1924 to 1936. The lake, with 550 miles of shoreline, has a capacity of about 32,000,000 acre feet of water. Here is one of the most popular recreation areas in the Southwest. 4x5 Speed Graphic camera; Eastman E-3 film; f.63 at 1/500th sec.; 6" Ektar lens; sunny; ASA rating 50.

BACK COVER

"SPRING FLOWER CROP - SALT RIVER VALLEY" BY DARWIN VAN CAMPEN. This photograph was taken along Baseline Road near 40th Street in south Phoenix. Pioneer dreamers of an agricultural empire in the Salt River Valley would be pleased to see these luxuriant fields of blooming flowers (stocks) on what was considered valueless desert land. Crops from these farms, owned mainly by Japanese farmers, are shipped by air and sold in eastern markets. 4x5 Linhof camera; Ektachrome; f.25 at 1/25th sec.; 150mm Symmar lens; February; bright sunlight; Weston Meter 300; ASA rating 50.